Still feels like our first night togetherFeels like the first kiss, its gettin better babyNo one can better this...Still holdin on, youre still the oneFirst time our eyes met, same feelin I getOnly feels much stronger, wanna love ya longerYou still turn the fire on...So if youre feelin lonely dontYoure the only one I ever wantI only wanna make it goodSo if I love ya a little more than I shouldPlease forgive me, I know not what I do......i cant stop lovin youDont deny me this pain Im going through......if I need ya like I doPlease believe me every word I say is true......our best times are together......touch, still gettin closer babyCant get close enough...Still holdin on, still number oneI remember the smell of your skin...everything...all your moves...you, yeah!...the nights ya know I still do......one thing Im sure of is the way we make loveAnd one thing I depend on is for us to stay strongWith every word and every breath Im prayinThats why Im sayin......never leave me I dont know what Id do...
Friday, August 10, 2018
Friday, July 31, 2009
Introduction to Literature
Up In The Sky
When you are down
And you want to get high,
Just take a good look
Up in the sky.
What you will see
Are the stars above,
And all you need
Is to proclaim your love.
Who you will find
And see so clear,
Are friends in mind
You want to hold near.
Whenever you need them
Just look up high,
Call their name
And see them fly.
Every friend you meet
Owns a star
And you can see them
No matter how far.
Whenever you are down
And want to get high,
Just take a good look
Up in the sky.
When you are down
And you want to get high,
Just take a good look
Up in the sky.
What you will see
Are the stars above,
And all you need
Is to proclaim your love.
Who you will find
And see so clear,
Are friends in mind
You want to hold near.
Whenever you need them
Just look up high,
Call their name
And see them fly.
Every friend you meet
Owns a star
And you can see them
No matter how far.
Whenever you are down
And want to get high,
Just take a good look
Up in the sky.
Sunday, November 30, 2008
Tuesday, October 28, 2008
A linguistic win for W: or, "What 'I' Means"
A linguistic win for W: or, "What 'I' Means"
This NYT article reports on a paper published in The Journal of Research in Personality in which Richard Slatcher analyzes Kerry's and W's political speech, determining that W's speech "was most like that of an older person, because, as people do when they age, he used fewer first-person singular words, more positive-emotion words, and had "a greater focus on the future...". Kerry's speech on the other hand was more like that of a depressed person, "because of his high use of first-person singular words, physical words like "ache" and negative-emotion words like "hate," along with low use of positive-emotion words, like "happy."
Interesting the relation between first person singular words and depression. It seems intuitive though at some level. The rest isn't so surprising. What is fun though is that W finally wins one in language, especially so given the drubbing he's taken since day 1 for his creative/special use of morphology and syntax.
This NYT article reports on a paper published in The Journal of Research in Personality in which Richard Slatcher analyzes Kerry's and W's political speech, determining that W's speech "was most like that of an older person, because, as people do when they age, he used fewer first-person singular words, more positive-emotion words, and had "a greater focus on the future...". Kerry's speech on the other hand was more like that of a depressed person, "because of his high use of first-person singular words, physical words like "ache" and negative-emotion words like "hate," along with low use of positive-emotion words, like "happy."
Interesting the relation between first person singular words and depression. It seems intuitive though at some level. The rest isn't so surprising. What is fun though is that W finally wins one in language, especially so given the drubbing he's taken since day 1 for his creative/special use of morphology and syntax.
Linguistics
inguistics, scientific study of language language, systematic communication by vocal symbols. It is a universal characteristic of the human species. Nothing is known of its origin, although scientists have identified a gene that clearly contributes to the human ability to use language.
..... Click the link for more information. , covering the structure (morphology and syntax; see grammar grammar, description of the structure of a language, consisting of the sounds (see phonology ); the meaningful combinations of these sounds into words or parts of words, called morphemes; and the arrangement of the morphemes into phrases and sentences, called syntax.
..... Click the link for more information. ), sounds (phonology phonology, study of the sound systems of languages. It is distinguished from phonetics , which is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning
..... Click the link for more information. ), and meaning (semantics semantics [Gr.,=significant] in general, the study of the relationship between words and meanings. The empirical study of word meanings and sentence meanings in existing languages is a branch of linguistics; the abstract study of meaning in relation to language or
..... Click the link for more information. ), as well as the history of the relations of languages to each other and the cultural place of language in human behavior. Phonetics phonetics (fōnĕt`ĭks, fə–), study of the sounds of languages from three basic points of view.
..... Click the link for more information. , the study of the sounds of speech, is generally considered a separate (but closely related to) field from linguistics.
Early Linguistics
Before the 19th cent., language was studied mainly as a field of philosophy. Among the philosophers interested in language was Wilhelm von Humboldt Humboldt, Wilhelm, Freiherr von (vĭl`hĕlm frī`hĕr fən h
..... Click the link for more information. , who considered language an activity that arises spontaneously from the human spirit; thus, he felt, languages are different just as the characteristics of individuals are different. In 1786 the English scholar Sir William Jones Jones, Sir William, 1746–94, English philologist and jurist. Jones was celebrated for his understanding of jurisprudence and of Oriental languages. He published an Essay on the Law of Bailments (1781), widely used in America as well as in England.
..... Click the link for more information. suggested the possible affinity of Sanskrit and Persian with Greek and Latin, for the first time bringing to light genetic relations between languages. With Jones's revelation the school of comparative historical linguistics began. Through the comparison of language structures, such 19th-century European linguists as Jakob Grimm Wilhelm Grimm (vĭl`hĕlm grĭm), 1786–1859, and which did much to encourage the romantic revival of folklore.
..... Click the link for more information. , Rasmus Rask Rask, Rasmus Christian (räs`m
..... Click the link for more information. , Karl Brugmann Brugmann, Karl (kärl brk`män), 1849–1919, German philologist.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Antoine Meillet, as well as the American William Dwight Whitney Whitney, William Dwight, 1827–94, American Sanskrit scholar and lexicographer, b. Northampton, Mass. After studying in Germany, Whitney became professor of Sanskrit and of comparative philology at Yale.
..... Click the link for more information. , did much to establish the existence of the Indo-European family of languages.
Structural Linguistics
In the 20th cent. the structural or descriptive linguistics school emerged. It dealt with languages at particular points in time (synchronic) rather than throughout their historical development (diachronic). The father of modern structural linguistics was Ferdinand de Saussure Saussure, Ferdinand de (fĕrdēnäN` də sōsür`), 1857–1913, Swiss linguist.
..... Click the link for more information. , who believed in language as a systematic structure serving as a link between thought and sound; he thought of language sounds as a series of linguistic signs that are purely arbitrary, as can be seen in the linguistic signs or words for horse: German Pferd, Turkish at, French cheval, and Russian loshad'. In America, a structural approach was continued through the efforts of Franz Boas Boas, Franz (bō`ăz, –ăs), 1858–1942, German-American anthropologist, b. Minden, Germany; Ph.D. Univ. of Kiel, 1881.
..... Click the link for more information. and Edward Sapir Sapir, Edward (səpēr`), 1884–1939, American linguist and anthropologist, b. Pomerania.
..... Click the link for more information. , who worked primarily with Native American languages, and Leonard Bloomfield Bloomfield, Leonard, 1887–1949, American linguist, b. Chicago. Bloomfield was professor at Ohio State Univ. (1921–27), at the Univ. of Chicago (1927–40), and at Yale (from 1940).
..... Click the link for more information. , whose methodology required that nonlinguistic criteria must not enter a structural description. Rigorous procedures for determining language structure were developed by Kenneth Pike, Bernard Bloch, Charles Hockett, and others.
See also structuralism structuralism, theory that uses culturally interconnected signs to reconstruct systems of relationships rather than studying isolated, material things in themselves. This method found wide use from the early 20th cent.
..... Click the link for more information. .
Transformational-Generative Grammar
In the 1950s the school of linguistic thought known as transformational-generative grammar received wide acclaim through the works of Noam Chomsky Chomsky, Noam (nōm chŏm`skē), 1928–, educator and linguist, b. Philadelphia.
..... Click the link for more information. . Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex sentences. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to an actual sentence of a language. All languages have the same deep structure, but they differ from each other in surface structure because of the application of different rules for transformations, pronunciation, and word insertion. Another important distinction made in transformational-generative grammar is the difference between language competence (the subconscious control of a linguistic system) and language performance (the speaker's actual use of language). Although the first work done in transformational-generative grammar was syntactic, later studies have applied the theory to the phonological and semantic components of language.
Other Areas of Linguistic Study
In contrast to theoretical schools of linguistics, workers in applied linguistics in the latter part of the 20th cent. have produced much work in the areas of foreign-language teaching and of bilingual education in the public schools (in the United States this has primarily involved Spanish and, in the Southwest, some Native American languages in addition to English). In addition, such subfields as pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics have gained importance.
Bibliography
See F. de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics (tr. 1966); J. Lyons, Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics (1968), and Language and Linguistics (1981); N. Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1969); A. Radford, Transformational Syntax (1982); F. J. Newmeyer, Linguistics (4 vol., 1988); W. J. Frawley, ed., International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2d ed., 4 vol., 2003).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia® Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/
linguistics
Study of the nature and structure of language. It traditionally encompasses semantics, syntax, and phonology. Synchronic linguistic studies aim to describe a language as it exists at a given time; diachronic studies trace a language's historical development. Greek philosophers in the 5th century BC who debated the origins of human language were the first in the West to be concerned with linguistic theory. The first complete Greek grammar, written by Dionysus Thrax in the 1st century BC, was a model for Roman grammarians, whose work led to the medieval and Renaissance vernacular grammars.
With the rise of historical linguistics in the 19th century, linguistics became a science. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Ferdinand de Saussure established the structuralist school of linguistics (see structuralism), which analyzed actual speech to learn about the underlying structure of language. In the 1950s Noam Chomsky challenged the structuralist program, arguing that linguistics should study native speakers' unconscious knowledge of their language (competence), not the language they actually produce (performance). His general approach, known as transformational generative grammar, was extensively revised in subsequent decades as the extended standard theory, the principles-and-parameters (government-binding) approach, and the minimalist program. Other grammatical theories developed from the 1960s were generalized phrase structure grammar, lexical-functional grammar, relational grammar, and cognitive grammar. Chomsky's emphasis on linguistic competence greatly stimulated the development of the related disciplines of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics. Other related fields are anthropological linguistics, computational linguistics, mathematical linguistics, sociolinguistics, and the philosophy of language.
For more information on linguistics, visit Britannica.com. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Linguistics
The science, that is, the general and universal properties, of language. The middle of the twentieth century saw a shift in the principal direction of linguistic inquiry from one of data collection and classification to the formulation of a theory of generative grammar, which focuses on the biological basis for the acquisition and use of human language and the universal principles that constrain the class of all languages. Generative grammar distinguishes between the knowledge of language (linguistic competence), which is represented by mental grammar, and the production and comprehension of speech (linguistic performance).
If grammar is defined as the mental representation of linguistic knowledge, then a general theory of language is a theory of grammar. A grammar includes everything one knows about a language; its phonetics and phonology (the sounds and the sound system), its morphology (the structure of words), its lexicon (the words or vocabulary), its syntax (the structure of sentences and the constraints on well-formed sentences), and its semantics (the meaning of words and sentences). See Psychoacoustics, Speech, Speech perception
Linguistics is not limited to grammatical theory. Descriptive linguistics analyzes the grammars of individual languages; anthropological linguistics, or ethnolinguistics, and sociolinguistics focus on languages in relation to culture, social class, race, and gender; dialectologists investigate how these factors fragment one language into many. In addition, sociolinguists and applied linguists examine language planning, literacy, bilingualism, and second-language acquisition. Computational linguistics encompasses automatic parsing, machine processing, and computer simulation of grammatical models for the generation and parsing of sentences. If viewed as a branch of artificial intelligence, computational linguistics has as its goal the modeling of human language as a cognitive system. A branch of linguistics concerned with the biological basis of language development is neurolinguistics. The form of language representation in the mind, that is, linguistic competence and the structure and components of the mental grammar, is the concern of theoretical linguistics. The branch of linguistics concerned with linguistic performance, that is, the production and comprehension of speech (or of sign language by the deaf), is called psycholinguistics. Psycholinguists also investigate how children acquire the complex grammar that underlies language use. See Information processing, Psycholinguistics
..... Click the link for more information. , covering the structure (morphology and syntax; see grammar grammar, description of the structure of a language, consisting of the sounds (see phonology ); the meaningful combinations of these sounds into words or parts of words, called morphemes; and the arrangement of the morphemes into phrases and sentences, called syntax.
..... Click the link for more information. ), sounds (phonology phonology, study of the sound systems of languages. It is distinguished from phonetics , which is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning
..... Click the link for more information. ), and meaning (semantics semantics [Gr.,=significant] in general, the study of the relationship between words and meanings. The empirical study of word meanings and sentence meanings in existing languages is a branch of linguistics; the abstract study of meaning in relation to language or
..... Click the link for more information. ), as well as the history of the relations of languages to each other and the cultural place of language in human behavior. Phonetics phonetics (fōnĕt`ĭks, fə–), study of the sounds of languages from three basic points of view.
..... Click the link for more information. , the study of the sounds of speech, is generally considered a separate (but closely related to) field from linguistics.
Early Linguistics
Before the 19th cent., language was studied mainly as a field of philosophy. Among the philosophers interested in language was Wilhelm von Humboldt Humboldt, Wilhelm, Freiherr von (vĭl`hĕlm frī`hĕr fən h
..... Click the link for more information. , who considered language an activity that arises spontaneously from the human spirit; thus, he felt, languages are different just as the characteristics of individuals are different. In 1786 the English scholar Sir William Jones Jones, Sir William, 1746–94, English philologist and jurist. Jones was celebrated for his understanding of jurisprudence and of Oriental languages. He published an Essay on the Law of Bailments (1781), widely used in America as well as in England.
..... Click the link for more information. suggested the possible affinity of Sanskrit and Persian with Greek and Latin, for the first time bringing to light genetic relations between languages. With Jones's revelation the school of comparative historical linguistics began. Through the comparison of language structures, such 19th-century European linguists as Jakob Grimm Wilhelm Grimm (vĭl`hĕlm grĭm), 1786–1859, and which did much to encourage the romantic revival of folklore.
..... Click the link for more information. , Rasmus Rask Rask, Rasmus Christian (räs`m
..... Click the link for more information. , Karl Brugmann Brugmann, Karl (kärl brk`män), 1849–1919, German philologist.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Antoine Meillet, as well as the American William Dwight Whitney Whitney, William Dwight, 1827–94, American Sanskrit scholar and lexicographer, b. Northampton, Mass. After studying in Germany, Whitney became professor of Sanskrit and of comparative philology at Yale.
..... Click the link for more information. , did much to establish the existence of the Indo-European family of languages.
Structural Linguistics
In the 20th cent. the structural or descriptive linguistics school emerged. It dealt with languages at particular points in time (synchronic) rather than throughout their historical development (diachronic). The father of modern structural linguistics was Ferdinand de Saussure Saussure, Ferdinand de (fĕrdēnäN` də sōsür`), 1857–1913, Swiss linguist.
..... Click the link for more information. , who believed in language as a systematic structure serving as a link between thought and sound; he thought of language sounds as a series of linguistic signs that are purely arbitrary, as can be seen in the linguistic signs or words for horse: German Pferd, Turkish at, French cheval, and Russian loshad'. In America, a structural approach was continued through the efforts of Franz Boas Boas, Franz (bō`ăz, –ăs), 1858–1942, German-American anthropologist, b. Minden, Germany; Ph.D. Univ. of Kiel, 1881.
..... Click the link for more information. and Edward Sapir Sapir, Edward (səpēr`), 1884–1939, American linguist and anthropologist, b. Pomerania.
..... Click the link for more information. , who worked primarily with Native American languages, and Leonard Bloomfield Bloomfield, Leonard, 1887–1949, American linguist, b. Chicago. Bloomfield was professor at Ohio State Univ. (1921–27), at the Univ. of Chicago (1927–40), and at Yale (from 1940).
..... Click the link for more information. , whose methodology required that nonlinguistic criteria must not enter a structural description. Rigorous procedures for determining language structure were developed by Kenneth Pike, Bernard Bloch, Charles Hockett, and others.
See also structuralism structuralism, theory that uses culturally interconnected signs to reconstruct systems of relationships rather than studying isolated, material things in themselves. This method found wide use from the early 20th cent.
..... Click the link for more information. .
Transformational-Generative Grammar
In the 1950s the school of linguistic thought known as transformational-generative grammar received wide acclaim through the works of Noam Chomsky Chomsky, Noam (nōm chŏm`skē), 1928–, educator and linguist, b. Philadelphia.
..... Click the link for more information. . Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex sentences. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to an actual sentence of a language. All languages have the same deep structure, but they differ from each other in surface structure because of the application of different rules for transformations, pronunciation, and word insertion. Another important distinction made in transformational-generative grammar is the difference between language competence (the subconscious control of a linguistic system) and language performance (the speaker's actual use of language). Although the first work done in transformational-generative grammar was syntactic, later studies have applied the theory to the phonological and semantic components of language.
Other Areas of Linguistic Study
In contrast to theoretical schools of linguistics, workers in applied linguistics in the latter part of the 20th cent. have produced much work in the areas of foreign-language teaching and of bilingual education in the public schools (in the United States this has primarily involved Spanish and, in the Southwest, some Native American languages in addition to English). In addition, such subfields as pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics have gained importance.
Bibliography
See F. de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics (tr. 1966); J. Lyons, Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics (1968), and Language and Linguistics (1981); N. Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1969); A. Radford, Transformational Syntax (1982); F. J. Newmeyer, Linguistics (4 vol., 1988); W. J. Frawley, ed., International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (2d ed., 4 vol., 2003).
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia® Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. www.cc.columbia.edu/cu/cup/
linguistics
Study of the nature and structure of language. It traditionally encompasses semantics, syntax, and phonology. Synchronic linguistic studies aim to describe a language as it exists at a given time; diachronic studies trace a language's historical development. Greek philosophers in the 5th century BC who debated the origins of human language were the first in the West to be concerned with linguistic theory. The first complete Greek grammar, written by Dionysus Thrax in the 1st century BC, was a model for Roman grammarians, whose work led to the medieval and Renaissance vernacular grammars.
With the rise of historical linguistics in the 19th century, linguistics became a science. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Ferdinand de Saussure established the structuralist school of linguistics (see structuralism), which analyzed actual speech to learn about the underlying structure of language. In the 1950s Noam Chomsky challenged the structuralist program, arguing that linguistics should study native speakers' unconscious knowledge of their language (competence), not the language they actually produce (performance). His general approach, known as transformational generative grammar, was extensively revised in subsequent decades as the extended standard theory, the principles-and-parameters (government-binding) approach, and the minimalist program. Other grammatical theories developed from the 1960s were generalized phrase structure grammar, lexical-functional grammar, relational grammar, and cognitive grammar. Chomsky's emphasis on linguistic competence greatly stimulated the development of the related disciplines of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics. Other related fields are anthropological linguistics, computational linguistics, mathematical linguistics, sociolinguistics, and the philosophy of language.
For more information on linguistics, visit Britannica.com. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Copyright © 1994-2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Linguistics
The science, that is, the general and universal properties, of language. The middle of the twentieth century saw a shift in the principal direction of linguistic inquiry from one of data collection and classification to the formulation of a theory of generative grammar, which focuses on the biological basis for the acquisition and use of human language and the universal principles that constrain the class of all languages. Generative grammar distinguishes between the knowledge of language (linguistic competence), which is represented by mental grammar, and the production and comprehension of speech (linguistic performance).
If grammar is defined as the mental representation of linguistic knowledge, then a general theory of language is a theory of grammar. A grammar includes everything one knows about a language; its phonetics and phonology (the sounds and the sound system), its morphology (the structure of words), its lexicon (the words or vocabulary), its syntax (the structure of sentences and the constraints on well-formed sentences), and its semantics (the meaning of words and sentences). See Psychoacoustics, Speech, Speech perception
Linguistics is not limited to grammatical theory. Descriptive linguistics analyzes the grammars of individual languages; anthropological linguistics, or ethnolinguistics, and sociolinguistics focus on languages in relation to culture, social class, race, and gender; dialectologists investigate how these factors fragment one language into many. In addition, sociolinguists and applied linguists examine language planning, literacy, bilingualism, and second-language acquisition. Computational linguistics encompasses automatic parsing, machine processing, and computer simulation of grammatical models for the generation and parsing of sentences. If viewed as a branch of artificial intelligence, computational linguistics has as its goal the modeling of human language as a cognitive system. A branch of linguistics concerned with the biological basis of language development is neurolinguistics. The form of language representation in the mind, that is, linguistic competence and the structure and components of the mental grammar, is the concern of theoretical linguistics. The branch of linguistics concerned with linguistic performance, that is, the production and comprehension of speech (or of sign language by the deaf), is called psycholinguistics. Psycholinguists also investigate how children acquire the complex grammar that underlies language use. See Information processing, Psycholinguistics
DESIGNING AND PRODUCING MULTIMEDIA LEARNING PROTOTYPE TO ENHANCE UNIVERSITY STUDENT’S RECEPTIVE SKILLS
With regard to material development, Kitao (1997) asserts that among the five important components in language instruction, which are students, a teacher, materials, teaching method and evaluation, learning materials indeed play an important role. In many cases, teachers and students rely heavily on learning materials which most of the time are in the form of textbooks, for they determine the content, methods, and procedures of learning. However, some students find materials in textbooks uninteresting and tedious because the contents are not useful, meaningful and interesting for them (Kitao, 1997). Thus, besides textbooks, there should be a variety of materials available to students and teachers, such as in the form of video and audio tapes, computer software, and visual aids.
In response to this phenomena above, this study examines the processes involved in developing multimedia learning materials for receptive skills that is called Integrated Listening-Reading Multimedia Activities (henceforth will be called ILRMA). This is designed mainly for the context of Indonesian university students. It is intended for individual learning enhancement as well as supplementary materials in classrooms. The study employed qualitative study with descriptive procedure involving first year students of Telkom Institute of Technology. The instruments used were questionnaire for needs analysis and library research.
The learning materials for listening skills learning materials were developed based on the six types of listening performance provided by Brown (2004), Lund’s six listener functions (Hadley, 2001), and nine listening responses developed by Richards (2005) and modified by Lund (Hadley, 2001). Meanwhile, for reading skills the learning materials were developed based on Nunan’s (1999) five steps in designing reading course, and Barrett’s (1968) taxonomy. The courseware was designed by referring to Plass’ model of interface design (1998), Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning (2003), and Dickinson’s design features for self-instructional materials.
It was found that, in the area of listening the skills that need to be enhanced include literal recognition (for example, making summary) and making inference. On the other hand, inference and analysis are the area for reading skills. Furthermore, aside from the exhaustive processes, the design and production of the multimedia learning materials for receptive skills requires a well plan and involves several people. They are a material developer for developing the learning materials, a software engineer for transforming the learning materials into prototype software, an illustrator for drawing images, and a technician for recording audio. In addition, it requires a well plan and immense amount of budget.
To complete the cycle of the study, it is suggested that an effectiveness study is conducted to evaluate the Integrated Listening-Reading Multimedia Activities.
Keywords: receptive skills, multimedia, learning materials
1. Introduction
All universities in Indonesia, including Institut Teknologi Telkom (henceforth, will be referred to IT Telkom), assign their freshmen to take English as compulsory subject. Particularly in IT Telkom, the English subject is intended to enhance the freshmen’s receptive skills, listening and reading. This is due to the fact that strong receptive skills will provide a lot of advantages for the students to enhance their productive skills which cover speaking and writing.
In terms of learning second or foreign language, one would think that reading, writing, speaking, and listening happen at the same time. As a matter of fact, learning a second or foreign language is not that different from learning the first. Listening precedes speaking, and reading precedes writing. Listening and reading are both receptive skills whereas students are passively receiving and processing information. Hence, listening and reading skills play a key role in the acquisition process.
Many studies have been conducted to explore and investigate the role of listening and reading in learning second and foreign language. The results strengthened the view that comprehension-based activities along with communicative oriented ones facilitate second language acquisition. After all, it is more than apparent that input plays a crucial role in second language acquisition.
With the advancement of multimedia technology, there are numerous learning materials designed and developed for enhancing student’s receptive skills. Indeed, regarding language learning, it has been well noted that there are advantages of using computer based multimedia. Among them are that computers can be programmed to allow users to control both the conditions of viewing and what is viewed (Frommer, 1998 in Hadley, 2001:212) and that it offers interactive learning (Frommer, 1998 in Hadley, 2001:163). The possibility of controlling the conditions of viewing and what is viewed enable a material developer to adapt the information and tasks with the students’ competency level and address their individual interests. Meanwhile, the interactive learning results in the improvement of sensory stimulation (Hoogeven, 1995 in Munir 2002).
Although there are many educational software in the form of CD-ROM and Internet web sites available, Meziane asserts that most software developments were mostly related to business or games-oriented applications (Mukti and Hwa, 2004). As a computer plays as a mediator (Hoven, 1997, 1999), what determines the effectiveness in one’s learning is the pedagogically content embedded in the multimedia software package.
Noting the facts above, this study is designed to develop learning materials and activities to enhance students’ listening and reading skills in the form of prototype software. As Wilbur (2004) stated that to justify the use of multimedia in enhancing learning and allow learning to gain deeper understanding of the instructional materials, the materials should be properly designed.
Thus, this study attempts to explore processes involved in the preparation and the production of listening and reading materials in the prototype software. It is intended that the prototype software developed in this study will be beneficial for IT Telkom’s freshmen to enhance their listening and reading skills, English lecturers to assist them in implementing the new perspective in TEFL, and material developers to further develop multimedia learning materials intended for classroom use as well as individual use.
2. Theoretical Foundation
2.1 Principles in Developing Materials for Receptive Skills in EFL Context
Brown (1995:139) defines materials as “any systematic description of the techniques and exercises to be used in classroom teaching.” Celce-Muria (1991) and Richards (2002; 2005) denote that the goal to create learning materials is to design resources for effective learning. Richards (2002) also notes that designing learning material has a purpose to develop a sequence of activities that leads teachers and students through a learning route that is at an appropriate level of difficulty, is engaging, that provides both motivating and useful practices. Moreover, it is essential for learning materials to be interested and encouraging students to practice (Rowntree cited in Richards, 2002). Learning material should also help students feel at ease and develop their confidence (Tomlinson cited in Richards, 2002). Consequently, learning materials ought to provide opportunities for individual practice and for self-assessment of learning.
Related to material development, Miller (1995) suggests that it is better to prepare one own materials designed for students and their needs for three reasons: (1) local contexts allow students to focus on language-use rather than battle with strange contexts, (2) materials produced in-house can be easily updated, and (3) students appreciate the personal touch of their teacher in materials produced specifically for them.
2.1.1The Nature of Listening and Reading to Foreign Language
Gebhard (1996), Hadley (2001), and Nunan (1999) point out that listening is not a passive skill, rather; it is a reactive skill for it places many demands involving the processes of receiving, attending to and assigning meaning to aural stimuli (Jones and Plass, 2002). Thus, listeners are expected to comprehend spoken language.
Mohammed (2005) asserts at least there are three stages of listening comprehension for EFL students: (1) listening and making no response; (2) listening and making short responses; and (3) listening and making longer responses. More comprehensively, Zengfu (cited in Guo, 2005) proposes that EFL students needs to experience five stages in listening comprehension: (1) hearing a series of sounds for students cannot understand the content at all and since they need to feel for the pronunciation and intonation of English; (2) distinguishing some isolated, content-related words; (3) distinguishing phrases and sentence patterns from the language; (4) distinguishing clauses or sentences in the language flow, knowing their implications, and having a reasonable understanding of the whole content; and (5) generally understanding most spoken texts coherently.
Meanwhile, Anderson (in Nunan, 2003:68) defines reading as a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning. The goal of reading is comprehension. This means that the meaning does not only depend on the reader or the text, but depends on the interaction of both. In other words, during reading a reader processes, in his mind, new information from the text by integrating them with his background knowledge. Detailed process of reading is presented in the following section.
2.1.2 The Processes in Listening and Reading to Foreign Language
When it comes to listening, one must “comprehend the text as they listen to it, retain information in memory, integrate it with what follows, and continually adjust their understanding of what they hear in the light of prior knowledge and incoming information” (Osada, 2004). Related to this, Hoven (1999) points out that there are two major principles underlying the understanding of the process in EFL listening comprehension: (1) interactive process; and (2) cognitive activity.
In interactive process, as people listen, they process not only what they hear, but also connect it to other information they already know. Moreover, cognitive activity explained that much of the principle of interactivity are interrelated with the predominantly cognitive nature of listening (Hoven, 1997). This is due to the fact that majority of the processing dynamics occur within the cognitive domain, with some involvement of the metacognitive and socio-affective domain (O’Malley and Rubin cited in Hoven, 1997). Within this process, listening skills being developed include both micro and macro skills.
Micro skills are related to bottom-up process which includes understanding incoming language proceeding from sounds, into words, into grammatical relationship and lexical meaning and so on (Celce-Muria, 1991; Guo, 2005; Nunan, 2003). Here, listening is done in a linear fashion from the smallest meaningful unit (phonemes) to complete texts. It is text-based. The activities involve listening for specific details, recognizing word-order patterns, and recognizing sound distinctions.
Meanwhile, macro skills involve top-down processing, which is listener-based (Guo, 2005). The skills include inferring situations, participants, and goals using real-world knowledge and using non verbal clues such as facial, kinestic, body language to decipher meanings (Brown, 2001). The strategies include listening for main idea, predicting, drawing inferences, and summarizing.
On the other hand, researchers of both first and second language reading have argued against the view that texts are self-contained objects and it is the reader’s job to recover the text’s meaning so that they have proposed a dynamic relationship between text and reader (Wallace, 1939:39). It is explained that texts do not contain meaning but they have potential for meaning. This potential is realized only when there is interaction between text and reader. In this case, Singhal (1998) cites Rumelhart (1977) that reading, whether in a first or second language context involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between the reader and the text. This process is better known as interactive reading models (Barnett in Hadley, 2001; Murtagh, 1989; Anderson in Nunan, 2002; Brown, 2001).
This study uses the interactive approach to reading as the springboard in developing reading materials, when integrating the materials and the exercises, and in presenting them using computer-based multimedia. In other words, the courseware developed should reflect the description of interactive model of reading.
2.2 Developing Materials and Activities for Listening and Reading
2.2.1 The Aspects of Listening Materials and Tasks
There are three important aspects to be well considered in developing listening materials. These aspects are setting conditions for effective listening, text features, and context features. Berne (cited in Osada, 2004) provides nine facts regarding a second or a foreign language listening comprehension: (1) familiarity with passage content will definitely facilitate FL listening comprehension; (2) lower-proficiency FL listeners attend to phonological cue, whilst higher-proficiency FL listeners attend to semantic cues; (3) the degree of FL listening proficiency determines the effectiveness of different types of speech modifications or visual aids (4) repetition of passages should be encouraged. It is necessary to let listeners listen to a passage more than one time; (5) pre-listening activities, for instance, a short synopses of a passage is helpful to facilitate FL listening comprehension; (6) related to attitudinal and attentional factors, compared to audiotape, videotape is more useful; (7) especially for higher-proficiency FL listeners, the use authentic listening passages leads to greater improvement; (8) it is necessary to train and teach how to use listening strategies; and (9) there is a need of wide range of situations where listening is required as well as different types of listening, different types of listening passages, different modes of presentation, and different types of activities or tasks.
Text features cover information organization, familiarity of topic, explicitness, type of input (genre), and level of intimacy (Anderson and Lynch cited in Nunan, 1999; Hoven 1997). Meanwhile, context features deals with those not directly related to the language of the text, such as the rate delivery and length of passage.
Additionally, in order to make an assumption that the text is suitable for the listeners, Eggins (1994) proposes two formulas, which is measuring (1) lexical density and (2) grammatical intricacy. If the number of lexical density is close to 1, it means that the number of content words including verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs is proportional to the number of non-content words including pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and articles. Meanwhile, if the number of grammatical intricacy is equal to 1, it means that the type of sentences in the text is simple sentences, which contains only one clause.
Regarding the aspects of listening tasks featuring the classification of listening performance, listener function and response demand, Brown (2004) provides six types of listening performance: (1) reactive—focuses pronunciation through brief coral or individual drills; (2) intensive—focuses on phonemes, words, intonation and discourse marker; (3) responsive—focuses on the process of understanding and responding to teacher’s talk; (4) selective—focuses on practicing to scan the material selectively for certain information; (5) extensive—requires listeners to invoke other interactive skills; and (6) interactive—focuses on students to focus on discussion, debate and group work. Moreover, Lund (cited in Hadley, 2001:185-186) lists six listener functions: (1) identification—includes identification of words, word categories, phonemic distinctions, morphological distinctions or semantic cues to meaning; (2) orientation—identification of important facts about the text, i.e. the participant, the situation, the general topic, the text type, etc.; (3) main idea comprehension—understanding of the higher-order ideas in the listening passage; (4) detail comprehension—understanding of more specific information; (5) full comprehension—understanding of both the main ideas and supportive details; and (6) replication—ability to reproduce the message through repetition of the content or transcription.
Further, these aspects of listening tasks are combined with the nine listening responses developed by Richards (2005) and modified by Lund (cited in Hadley, 2001:187), i.e. (1) doing—implying a physical response; (2) choosing—involving activities i.e. putting pictures in order or matching a text with picture; (3) transferring—including filling in a graph, tracing a route, and other transferring of information from one modality to another; (4) answering—requiring listener to answer a set of comprehension questions for specific information in the text; (5) condensing—including taking notes based on the listening passage; (6) extending—involving activities i.e. creating an ending, completing a partial transcript, and so on; (7) duplicating—providing evidence that the function of replication has been accomplished; (8) modeling—involving imitation of features of the text; and (9) conversing—implying some kind of interaction with the text.
2.2.2 Developing Materials for Reading Comprehension
Nunan (1999:266-267) suggests five steps in designing a reading course, i.e. deciding overall purpose, identifying text and tasks, identifying linguistic elements, sequencing and integrating texts and tasks, and link reading to other skills. Deciding overall purpose is important because goal statements are used as a basis for developing instructional objectives (Brown, 1995;1999). Identifying or selecting text requires material developer to decide whether the texts are selected from authentic or created materials. Nuttal (1982:25) points out that there are three factors that should be considered when selecting texts, i.e. readability, suitability of content, and exploitability. Meanwhile, (Day, 1999) presents seven factors involved as the criteria in selecting an EFL reading passage i.e. interest, exploitability, readability, topic, political appropriateness, cultural suitability, and appearance.
In relation with identifying reading task, Day and Park (2005) posit that that well-designed comprehension questions can be used to help students interact with the text to create or construct meaning. Such questions demand information that represents outcomes of the comprehension process (cf. Myers and Brent-Harris 2004). Consequently before making the questions, the types of comprehension outputs should be selected first. One reference for comprehension output is The Barrett’s (1968) taxonomy of the Cognitive and Affective Dimension of Reading Comprehension (Myers, 2004; Day and Park, 2005; Hadley, 2001) which consists of five comprehension outcomes, i.e. literal comprehension, reorganization, inferential comprehension, evaluation, and appreciation. The comprehension output then is delivered through several forms of questions (Day and Park, 2005) like yes/no, alternative, true or false, Wh-, and multiple choice questions.
Identifying the linguistic elements refers to analysis on grammatical, lexical and/or discoursal elements (Nunan, 1999). Considering that the materials developed in this present study are presented in computer multimedia, the linguistic elements of the texts used are presented as generic help provided in the same screen with texts and exercises. Students only need to click the grammar help whenever they need.
The fourth steps in designing a reading program is sequencing and integrating the selected texts and tasks. This stage may be started by referring to approaches to syllabus design for the program. Finally, the reading program designed is linked to other language skills of language interactions that mirror sequences in daily life (Nunan, 1999).
2.3 Presenting Listening and Reading Materials in Computer Based Multimedia
In terms of methodological framework of CALL, Hubbard (cited in Hoven, 1997 and 1999) proposes three components: (1) approach, (2) design, and (3) procedure. In the approach, the role of computer is determined. If it is to instruct, then students are responders, not initiator following a set of learning objectives predetermined learning paths. If it is to assist, then there is no predetermined learning path and students are initiators taking responsibilities for their own learning.
Furthermore, the design of a CALL should cover student variables, syllabus orientation, content, program focus, and hardware as well as programming language. Meanwhile, the procedure should consist of the activity types, presentational scheme, input judging, feedback, control options, and screen layouts incorporated into the CALL.
The prototype software being developed is included into the instructional approach in which the activities take place in doing exercises. Here, students are responders, not initiators. The computer instructs them and they learn from the computer. However, the purpose of the prototype software developed in this study is to assist students to support the development of their intellectual capacities as abstract operational thoughts assist them in applying logical thinking to solve complex problems (Brown, 2001).
2.3.1 Cognitive Approach to Multimedia Learning
There are three assumptions underlying how people learn under cognitive approach: (1) humans use one “channel” for processing visual information and a second one for processing auditory information; (2) there is a limit to how much information can be processed in each channel at a time; and (3) humans are active processors of information, not passive receptors (Kinnamon, 2003). Thus, cognitive approach is closely related to information processing and problem solving to interface design in multimedia environment.
In an attempt to design effective multimedia instructional practices, Sorden (2005) combines five principles based on cognitive theory—theory of perceiving and knowing, thinking, remembering, understanding language, and learning. These principles are: (1) Baddeley’s model of Working Memory, Sweller’s Theory of Cognitive Load, and Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning for effects of presenting multimedia learning; and (2) Anderson’s ACT-R Cognitive Architecture and Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory for levels of processing that can occur within or between the visual and verbal systems.
The cognitive theory model of multimedia consists of five modes of knowledge representation. Physical representations represent words or pictures that are presented to the student, while sensory representations represent the ears or eyes of the student. The shallow or short-term memory representations represents sounds or images attended to by the student, and deep working memory representations represent verbal and pictorial models constructed by the student. Moreover, long-term memory representations represent the student’s relevant prior knowledge. Figure 1 shows this cognitive theory model of multimedia learning.
In response to this phenomena above, this study examines the processes involved in developing multimedia learning materials for receptive skills that is called Integrated Listening-Reading Multimedia Activities (henceforth will be called ILRMA). This is designed mainly for the context of Indonesian university students. It is intended for individual learning enhancement as well as supplementary materials in classrooms. The study employed qualitative study with descriptive procedure involving first year students of Telkom Institute of Technology. The instruments used were questionnaire for needs analysis and library research.
The learning materials for listening skills learning materials were developed based on the six types of listening performance provided by Brown (2004), Lund’s six listener functions (Hadley, 2001), and nine listening responses developed by Richards (2005) and modified by Lund (Hadley, 2001). Meanwhile, for reading skills the learning materials were developed based on Nunan’s (1999) five steps in designing reading course, and Barrett’s (1968) taxonomy. The courseware was designed by referring to Plass’ model of interface design (1998), Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning (2003), and Dickinson’s design features for self-instructional materials.
It was found that, in the area of listening the skills that need to be enhanced include literal recognition (for example, making summary) and making inference. On the other hand, inference and analysis are the area for reading skills. Furthermore, aside from the exhaustive processes, the design and production of the multimedia learning materials for receptive skills requires a well plan and involves several people. They are a material developer for developing the learning materials, a software engineer for transforming the learning materials into prototype software, an illustrator for drawing images, and a technician for recording audio. In addition, it requires a well plan and immense amount of budget.
To complete the cycle of the study, it is suggested that an effectiveness study is conducted to evaluate the Integrated Listening-Reading Multimedia Activities.
Keywords: receptive skills, multimedia, learning materials
1. Introduction
All universities in Indonesia, including Institut Teknologi Telkom (henceforth, will be referred to IT Telkom), assign their freshmen to take English as compulsory subject. Particularly in IT Telkom, the English subject is intended to enhance the freshmen’s receptive skills, listening and reading. This is due to the fact that strong receptive skills will provide a lot of advantages for the students to enhance their productive skills which cover speaking and writing.
In terms of learning second or foreign language, one would think that reading, writing, speaking, and listening happen at the same time. As a matter of fact, learning a second or foreign language is not that different from learning the first. Listening precedes speaking, and reading precedes writing. Listening and reading are both receptive skills whereas students are passively receiving and processing information. Hence, listening and reading skills play a key role in the acquisition process.
Many studies have been conducted to explore and investigate the role of listening and reading in learning second and foreign language. The results strengthened the view that comprehension-based activities along with communicative oriented ones facilitate second language acquisition. After all, it is more than apparent that input plays a crucial role in second language acquisition.
With the advancement of multimedia technology, there are numerous learning materials designed and developed for enhancing student’s receptive skills. Indeed, regarding language learning, it has been well noted that there are advantages of using computer based multimedia. Among them are that computers can be programmed to allow users to control both the conditions of viewing and what is viewed (Frommer, 1998 in Hadley, 2001:212) and that it offers interactive learning (Frommer, 1998 in Hadley, 2001:163). The possibility of controlling the conditions of viewing and what is viewed enable a material developer to adapt the information and tasks with the students’ competency level and address their individual interests. Meanwhile, the interactive learning results in the improvement of sensory stimulation (Hoogeven, 1995 in Munir 2002).
Although there are many educational software in the form of CD-ROM and Internet web sites available, Meziane asserts that most software developments were mostly related to business or games-oriented applications (Mukti and Hwa, 2004). As a computer plays as a mediator (Hoven, 1997, 1999), what determines the effectiveness in one’s learning is the pedagogically content embedded in the multimedia software package.
Noting the facts above, this study is designed to develop learning materials and activities to enhance students’ listening and reading skills in the form of prototype software. As Wilbur (2004) stated that to justify the use of multimedia in enhancing learning and allow learning to gain deeper understanding of the instructional materials, the materials should be properly designed.
Thus, this study attempts to explore processes involved in the preparation and the production of listening and reading materials in the prototype software. It is intended that the prototype software developed in this study will be beneficial for IT Telkom’s freshmen to enhance their listening and reading skills, English lecturers to assist them in implementing the new perspective in TEFL, and material developers to further develop multimedia learning materials intended for classroom use as well as individual use.
2. Theoretical Foundation
2.1 Principles in Developing Materials for Receptive Skills in EFL Context
Brown (1995:139) defines materials as “any systematic description of the techniques and exercises to be used in classroom teaching.” Celce-Muria (1991) and Richards (2002; 2005) denote that the goal to create learning materials is to design resources for effective learning. Richards (2002) also notes that designing learning material has a purpose to develop a sequence of activities that leads teachers and students through a learning route that is at an appropriate level of difficulty, is engaging, that provides both motivating and useful practices. Moreover, it is essential for learning materials to be interested and encouraging students to practice (Rowntree cited in Richards, 2002). Learning material should also help students feel at ease and develop their confidence (Tomlinson cited in Richards, 2002). Consequently, learning materials ought to provide opportunities for individual practice and for self-assessment of learning.
Related to material development, Miller (1995) suggests that it is better to prepare one own materials designed for students and their needs for three reasons: (1) local contexts allow students to focus on language-use rather than battle with strange contexts, (2) materials produced in-house can be easily updated, and (3) students appreciate the personal touch of their teacher in materials produced specifically for them.
2.1.1The Nature of Listening and Reading to Foreign Language
Gebhard (1996), Hadley (2001), and Nunan (1999) point out that listening is not a passive skill, rather; it is a reactive skill for it places many demands involving the processes of receiving, attending to and assigning meaning to aural stimuli (Jones and Plass, 2002). Thus, listeners are expected to comprehend spoken language.
Mohammed (2005) asserts at least there are three stages of listening comprehension for EFL students: (1) listening and making no response; (2) listening and making short responses; and (3) listening and making longer responses. More comprehensively, Zengfu (cited in Guo, 2005) proposes that EFL students needs to experience five stages in listening comprehension: (1) hearing a series of sounds for students cannot understand the content at all and since they need to feel for the pronunciation and intonation of English; (2) distinguishing some isolated, content-related words; (3) distinguishing phrases and sentence patterns from the language; (4) distinguishing clauses or sentences in the language flow, knowing their implications, and having a reasonable understanding of the whole content; and (5) generally understanding most spoken texts coherently.
Meanwhile, Anderson (in Nunan, 2003:68) defines reading as a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning. The goal of reading is comprehension. This means that the meaning does not only depend on the reader or the text, but depends on the interaction of both. In other words, during reading a reader processes, in his mind, new information from the text by integrating them with his background knowledge. Detailed process of reading is presented in the following section.
2.1.2 The Processes in Listening and Reading to Foreign Language
When it comes to listening, one must “comprehend the text as they listen to it, retain information in memory, integrate it with what follows, and continually adjust their understanding of what they hear in the light of prior knowledge and incoming information” (Osada, 2004). Related to this, Hoven (1999) points out that there are two major principles underlying the understanding of the process in EFL listening comprehension: (1) interactive process; and (2) cognitive activity.
In interactive process, as people listen, they process not only what they hear, but also connect it to other information they already know. Moreover, cognitive activity explained that much of the principle of interactivity are interrelated with the predominantly cognitive nature of listening (Hoven, 1997). This is due to the fact that majority of the processing dynamics occur within the cognitive domain, with some involvement of the metacognitive and socio-affective domain (O’Malley and Rubin cited in Hoven, 1997). Within this process, listening skills being developed include both micro and macro skills.
Micro skills are related to bottom-up process which includes understanding incoming language proceeding from sounds, into words, into grammatical relationship and lexical meaning and so on (Celce-Muria, 1991; Guo, 2005; Nunan, 2003). Here, listening is done in a linear fashion from the smallest meaningful unit (phonemes) to complete texts. It is text-based. The activities involve listening for specific details, recognizing word-order patterns, and recognizing sound distinctions.
Meanwhile, macro skills involve top-down processing, which is listener-based (Guo, 2005). The skills include inferring situations, participants, and goals using real-world knowledge and using non verbal clues such as facial, kinestic, body language to decipher meanings (Brown, 2001). The strategies include listening for main idea, predicting, drawing inferences, and summarizing.
On the other hand, researchers of both first and second language reading have argued against the view that texts are self-contained objects and it is the reader’s job to recover the text’s meaning so that they have proposed a dynamic relationship between text and reader (Wallace, 1939:39). It is explained that texts do not contain meaning but they have potential for meaning. This potential is realized only when there is interaction between text and reader. In this case, Singhal (1998) cites Rumelhart (1977) that reading, whether in a first or second language context involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between the reader and the text. This process is better known as interactive reading models (Barnett in Hadley, 2001; Murtagh, 1989; Anderson in Nunan, 2002; Brown, 2001).
This study uses the interactive approach to reading as the springboard in developing reading materials, when integrating the materials and the exercises, and in presenting them using computer-based multimedia. In other words, the courseware developed should reflect the description of interactive model of reading.
2.2 Developing Materials and Activities for Listening and Reading
2.2.1 The Aspects of Listening Materials and Tasks
There are three important aspects to be well considered in developing listening materials. These aspects are setting conditions for effective listening, text features, and context features. Berne (cited in Osada, 2004) provides nine facts regarding a second or a foreign language listening comprehension: (1) familiarity with passage content will definitely facilitate FL listening comprehension; (2) lower-proficiency FL listeners attend to phonological cue, whilst higher-proficiency FL listeners attend to semantic cues; (3) the degree of FL listening proficiency determines the effectiveness of different types of speech modifications or visual aids (4) repetition of passages should be encouraged. It is necessary to let listeners listen to a passage more than one time; (5) pre-listening activities, for instance, a short synopses of a passage is helpful to facilitate FL listening comprehension; (6) related to attitudinal and attentional factors, compared to audiotape, videotape is more useful; (7) especially for higher-proficiency FL listeners, the use authentic listening passages leads to greater improvement; (8) it is necessary to train and teach how to use listening strategies; and (9) there is a need of wide range of situations where listening is required as well as different types of listening, different types of listening passages, different modes of presentation, and different types of activities or tasks.
Text features cover information organization, familiarity of topic, explicitness, type of input (genre), and level of intimacy (Anderson and Lynch cited in Nunan, 1999; Hoven 1997). Meanwhile, context features deals with those not directly related to the language of the text, such as the rate delivery and length of passage.
Additionally, in order to make an assumption that the text is suitable for the listeners, Eggins (1994) proposes two formulas, which is measuring (1) lexical density and (2) grammatical intricacy. If the number of lexical density is close to 1, it means that the number of content words including verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs is proportional to the number of non-content words including pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and articles. Meanwhile, if the number of grammatical intricacy is equal to 1, it means that the type of sentences in the text is simple sentences, which contains only one clause.
Regarding the aspects of listening tasks featuring the classification of listening performance, listener function and response demand, Brown (2004) provides six types of listening performance: (1) reactive—focuses pronunciation through brief coral or individual drills; (2) intensive—focuses on phonemes, words, intonation and discourse marker; (3) responsive—focuses on the process of understanding and responding to teacher’s talk; (4) selective—focuses on practicing to scan the material selectively for certain information; (5) extensive—requires listeners to invoke other interactive skills; and (6) interactive—focuses on students to focus on discussion, debate and group work. Moreover, Lund (cited in Hadley, 2001:185-186) lists six listener functions: (1) identification—includes identification of words, word categories, phonemic distinctions, morphological distinctions or semantic cues to meaning; (2) orientation—identification of important facts about the text, i.e. the participant, the situation, the general topic, the text type, etc.; (3) main idea comprehension—understanding of the higher-order ideas in the listening passage; (4) detail comprehension—understanding of more specific information; (5) full comprehension—understanding of both the main ideas and supportive details; and (6) replication—ability to reproduce the message through repetition of the content or transcription.
Further, these aspects of listening tasks are combined with the nine listening responses developed by Richards (2005) and modified by Lund (cited in Hadley, 2001:187), i.e. (1) doing—implying a physical response; (2) choosing—involving activities i.e. putting pictures in order or matching a text with picture; (3) transferring—including filling in a graph, tracing a route, and other transferring of information from one modality to another; (4) answering—requiring listener to answer a set of comprehension questions for specific information in the text; (5) condensing—including taking notes based on the listening passage; (6) extending—involving activities i.e. creating an ending, completing a partial transcript, and so on; (7) duplicating—providing evidence that the function of replication has been accomplished; (8) modeling—involving imitation of features of the text; and (9) conversing—implying some kind of interaction with the text.
2.2.2 Developing Materials for Reading Comprehension
Nunan (1999:266-267) suggests five steps in designing a reading course, i.e. deciding overall purpose, identifying text and tasks, identifying linguistic elements, sequencing and integrating texts and tasks, and link reading to other skills. Deciding overall purpose is important because goal statements are used as a basis for developing instructional objectives (Brown, 1995;1999). Identifying or selecting text requires material developer to decide whether the texts are selected from authentic or created materials. Nuttal (1982:25) points out that there are three factors that should be considered when selecting texts, i.e. readability, suitability of content, and exploitability. Meanwhile, (Day, 1999) presents seven factors involved as the criteria in selecting an EFL reading passage i.e. interest, exploitability, readability, topic, political appropriateness, cultural suitability, and appearance.
In relation with identifying reading task, Day and Park (2005) posit that that well-designed comprehension questions can be used to help students interact with the text to create or construct meaning. Such questions demand information that represents outcomes of the comprehension process (cf. Myers and Brent-Harris 2004). Consequently before making the questions, the types of comprehension outputs should be selected first. One reference for comprehension output is The Barrett’s (1968) taxonomy of the Cognitive and Affective Dimension of Reading Comprehension (Myers, 2004; Day and Park, 2005; Hadley, 2001) which consists of five comprehension outcomes, i.e. literal comprehension, reorganization, inferential comprehension, evaluation, and appreciation. The comprehension output then is delivered through several forms of questions (Day and Park, 2005) like yes/no, alternative, true or false, Wh-, and multiple choice questions.
Identifying the linguistic elements refers to analysis on grammatical, lexical and/or discoursal elements (Nunan, 1999). Considering that the materials developed in this present study are presented in computer multimedia, the linguistic elements of the texts used are presented as generic help provided in the same screen with texts and exercises. Students only need to click the grammar help whenever they need.
The fourth steps in designing a reading program is sequencing and integrating the selected texts and tasks. This stage may be started by referring to approaches to syllabus design for the program. Finally, the reading program designed is linked to other language skills of language interactions that mirror sequences in daily life (Nunan, 1999).
2.3 Presenting Listening and Reading Materials in Computer Based Multimedia
In terms of methodological framework of CALL, Hubbard (cited in Hoven, 1997 and 1999) proposes three components: (1) approach, (2) design, and (3) procedure. In the approach, the role of computer is determined. If it is to instruct, then students are responders, not initiator following a set of learning objectives predetermined learning paths. If it is to assist, then there is no predetermined learning path and students are initiators taking responsibilities for their own learning.
Furthermore, the design of a CALL should cover student variables, syllabus orientation, content, program focus, and hardware as well as programming language. Meanwhile, the procedure should consist of the activity types, presentational scheme, input judging, feedback, control options, and screen layouts incorporated into the CALL.
The prototype software being developed is included into the instructional approach in which the activities take place in doing exercises. Here, students are responders, not initiators. The computer instructs them and they learn from the computer. However, the purpose of the prototype software developed in this study is to assist students to support the development of their intellectual capacities as abstract operational thoughts assist them in applying logical thinking to solve complex problems (Brown, 2001).
2.3.1 Cognitive Approach to Multimedia Learning
There are three assumptions underlying how people learn under cognitive approach: (1) humans use one “channel” for processing visual information and a second one for processing auditory information; (2) there is a limit to how much information can be processed in each channel at a time; and (3) humans are active processors of information, not passive receptors (Kinnamon, 2003). Thus, cognitive approach is closely related to information processing and problem solving to interface design in multimedia environment.
In an attempt to design effective multimedia instructional practices, Sorden (2005) combines five principles based on cognitive theory—theory of perceiving and knowing, thinking, remembering, understanding language, and learning. These principles are: (1) Baddeley’s model of Working Memory, Sweller’s Theory of Cognitive Load, and Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning for effects of presenting multimedia learning; and (2) Anderson’s ACT-R Cognitive Architecture and Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory for levels of processing that can occur within or between the visual and verbal systems.
The cognitive theory model of multimedia consists of five modes of knowledge representation. Physical representations represent words or pictures that are presented to the student, while sensory representations represent the ears or eyes of the student. The shallow or short-term memory representations represents sounds or images attended to by the student, and deep working memory representations represent verbal and pictorial models constructed by the student. Moreover, long-term memory representations represent the student’s relevant prior knowledge. Figure 1 shows this cognitive theory model of multimedia learning.
Our assumptions as teachers and learners – time to air them
Introduction
The conference workshop and this article are based on the authors’ experience of training ESP teachers from a number of Russian universities with the materials of the ESP Teacher Development Course which were created by a group of Russian professors and consultants from the UK – the project sponsored by the British Council in 2001-2005.
The course was a response to the needs of Russian teachers of English at tertiary level institutions where English is a compulsory subject for all students irrespective of their area of specialization. Preceding the development of the Course, a baseline study was conducted to identify the major problem areas of teaching and learning English for professional purposes in Russian universities. Some of the conclusions of the Baseline Study were that:
• English language classes are “generally teacher-dominated with corresponding error correction techniques and patterns of classroom interaction”
• ESP lessons are “largely based on written texts which are typically read aloud and translated”
• Students “feel comfortable with the old traditional mode of teaching and are satisfied with their teachers’ attitudes, correction techniques and classroom atmosphere as a whole.”(1)
Thus, foreign language instruction in Russia has been until recently oriented rather to learning grammar rules and drilling, memorizing lists of specialist terms, translating texts, with teachers mostly practicing directive teaching techniques. Many ESP teachers see as their primary tasks explaining rules to students, correcting their errors, providing them with materials, telling the learners exactly what to do and when. About half of the students who took part in the survey, “do not feel encouraged by their teachers to discuss the content or goals of their English course, some of them… not even being quite clear as to what it involves.” (2) To address the problem of outdated teaching methodology and to train teachers in ways reflecting the demands of the labour market their learners are preparing to enter, the RESPONSE project with the focus on in-service teacher development was carried out.
Apart from the findings of the survey, our own observations in training sessions with ESP teachers confirm the conclusions of the Baseline Study. Quite a few ESP teachers have by now participated in workshops or professional events informing them about modern methodology, the best ways to teach, the newest teaching materials and aids. Such terms as “learner autonomy”, “communicative competence”, “learning skills and learner strategies”, “content and language integrated learning” are not completely unfamiliar to them, however, when it comes to the question how certain modern concepts and principles can be applied in their everyday practice, the answers quite often reveal that, to quote one of the training course participants, “haute couture fashion displayed by trainers is not for everyday wear.” As a result, teachers stick to the well-trodden path the language instructors from their student years were using, and in the minds of these teachers there seems to exist a chasm between the “ideal’ and the “reality”, seen by many as impossible to bridge. Thus, the primary task of the “ESP Teacher Development Course”, some materials of which are used in the workshop, is to “encourage teachers to revisit and develop further their own individual philosophies of teaching” (4) by first raising their awareness of what they are guided by in their everyday practice.
Aim and focus of the workshop
The aim of the workshop is to involve its participants in reflection on one of the aspects of their practice and the principles underlying it. They will be encouraged to share ideas on their understanding of learner autonomy and how it can be developed. The questions raised are: What is learner autonomy? What should learners do to take more responsibility for their learning? How can the teacher facilitate the process?
These questions are nothing new. There are numerous publications which deal with the issue of learner autonomy, one of the most well-known being Learner Autonomy. A Guide to Developing Learner Responsibility by Scharle and Szabo, in the Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers series (4). However, although teachers generally agree that it would be good to have more responsible learners, our training practice has revealed that the assumptions teachers hold about “autonomy” in the teaching/learning process vary significantly. Russian teachers’ educational background can hardly provide them with guidance regarding “freedom and ability to manage one’s own learning” (p.4), since Russian national culture, as is the case with many other countries, would generally endorse a tightly controlled classroom with clearly defined roles of both teachers and learners, with the teacher traditionally perceived as “a font of wisdom”. Yet, the information age sets its own priorities, making life-long learning part of a young person’s reality in this rapidly changing world. So, if we do not try to develop the ability for independent learning in our students, we may be preparing them for failure, not success, in their future professional lives.
Structure of the workshop
In this workshop, the participants take part in a series of interactive activities. They will mostly benefit from engaging in discussion of the assumptions that underpin their teaching and sharing experiences and ideas. In an international setting, it is likely to provide some new insights into how the concept of learner autonomy should be treated, and how a practitioner can develop further in order to make the teaching/learning process more effective in preparing learners to use L2 in the real world. The presenters will initiate the discussion, monitor its progress and summarise the most important points arising from it.
Workshop activities
1. “Shaking up”
Step 1. (Individual reflection)
Complete the questionnaire below. Consider the following statements to indicate your opinion about each one, by ticking the relevant box 1 to 4.
1 means you strongly agree. 3 means you disagree.
2 means you agree. 4 means you strongly disagree.
1 2 3 4
1. Teachers should always know the right answers and provide students with them.
2. Students learn more effectively when they take responsibility for their own learning **.
3. Encouraging students to correct each other’s work only serves to fossilize those mistakes in their memory.
4. It is the teacher who should decide on the materials and the tasks to be done by the learners.
Step 2. (Small group discussion)
• Work in small groups and discuss your opinions.
• Choose the most controversial issue.
Step3. (Plenary)
• Put forward the most controversial issues and discuss them in a plenary.
Step 3. (Individual reflection and small group discussion)
Choose one of the two questions that follow and think about it for 3-4 minutes, writing your answers down.
Share your ideas in small groups.
1. What should teachers do to develop learner autonomy? (What do you do in your classes?)
2. What students need to de to become more responsible and autonomous learners?
Step 4.(Reflection)
• Complete the quotation ‘The authority of those who teach is often … to those who want to learn.’ (Cicero)
Step5. (Plenary)
Share your ideas with other participants.
2. Metaphorically Speaking
Step1. (Individual reflection and small group discussion)
• Think of a metaphor for your ESP/ELT classroom
• Discuss them in small groups
Step 2 . (Plenary)
• Choose a volunteer to describe the images of your group
• Pick up a poster (from those suggested by the facilitators) and together with representatives of other groups rank the posters reflecting teachers’ perceptions of the process of learning from more teacher-oriented to more learner-centered
• Discuss the underlying assumptions.
Some examples of posters (produced by participants of the TD course in 2005-2008)
• Flower garden (T - sun/rain, Ss - flowers)
• Walk in the forest (T - path, Ss - travellers)
• Organs (T - heart, Ss - brain)
• Woodcarving/Jewel making (T - carpenter/jeweler, Ss - wood/stones)
• Circus (T - tamer, Ss - lions)
• Interconnected vessels
Discussion
Discussion that generally follows the above activities concentrates on what teachers and learners should do in and outside the classroom to foster learner responsibility, students’ active involvement in their own learning.
Much of responsibility for success in language learning rests with individual learners, and their ability to take full advantage of the opportunity to learn. We, language teachers, should heighten their awareness of how to learn, focus on helping our students find, process and apply the information they have found. Teacher’s instruction should help learners become more conscious of the strategies they use or could learn to use - why and when specific strategies are important, how to apply appropriate language learning strategies, how to transfer them to new situations.
Therefore, the role of the teacher should undergo profound changes. The teacher’s status can be no longer based only on hierarchical authority. The teacher’s primary role is to guide and assist discovery. They should create conditions conducive to the learners’ reflection on their work and cooperative development. The new, challenging functions are to be taken on by the teacher, such as facilitator, helper, guide, consultant, advisor, coordinator, and co-communicator.
What often happens in the classrooms so far is vividly described in the following extract from a TD course participant’s diary:
“Some teachers are afraid of creative and clever students, those who ask questions. They want them to be silent and listen. They are not interested in students’ opinions. Some teachers love students too much and ‘water’ them with knowledge. They let them wait for the result to come with the teacher’s help and stay passive. Some teachers look at their students as if they are enemies to fight against. They never try to be patient, tolerant or understanding. Some teachers give all the freedom to students and prefer to observe them without interfering in the process. Students do whatever they want without clear goals or tangible results.” (Yelena Mescheryakova, a university teacher of English)
What should teachers do to develop learner autonomy?
Teachers should share information with learners about planning the classroom process, delegating tasks and decision to them. The process of learning for the students should become more self-directed, problem-oriented and action-based.
Teachers show students the variety of available strategies of learning, encourage them to explore and expand their abilities. They make sure that their teaching is targeted at the real needs of the students. They should also be flexible enough to allow for adjustments that would make the learning/teaching process more relevant to their students’ situation. They clearly establish expectations and provide for consistent control.
The first step towards reaching the goal of autonomy could be a well-thought through system of tasks and activities which integrate all the skills; a better organization of students’ individual research, wider use of the Internet. Teachers let learners make tests and correct mistakes, produce materials for the classroom. They should stimulate their students’ desire to search for information by themselves, which would benefit both teachers and learners, as students can gradually gain greater confidence, involvement and proficiency.
What do students need to do to become more responsible and autonomous learners?
Learners should, first of all, develop awareness of their new role in the process of learning and teaching and understanding of its importance for their future life in the rapidly changing world. They should be prepared to be more active, which involves taking risks. Learners should realize that they can be the source of materials and activities. If students bring to class what is important to them, it motivates them, stimulates interest in the subject and guarantees their maximum involvement. Students’ active participation in lesson planning and preparation of materials can help meet their needs, and make learning meaningful, efficient and relevant to their future occupation. Students learn to reflect on their learning styles and strategies, consciously developing those that are effective for them. They rely on each other. Peer teaching and team tasks train them to work cooperatively, which is a very important social skill. Each has to make a valid contribution that fosters everybody's learning. When students take more responsibility for what happens in the language classroom, more learning occurs, and they should realize it.
Conclusion
The workshop aim can be considered to be reached if meaningful discussion has occurred, in the process of which teachers were able to compare their beliefs and professional experiences with those of the others, have aired their ideas and, ideally, got some insights into what they can change about their ways of teaching and learning. The term “life-long learning” is a fairly recent addition to an educator’s vocabulary but teachers have always known that to be successful in their profession they have to learn continually, and most of us have been doing so throughout their careers. However, teaching being what it is – work done mostly in the confines of the classroom with only one’s learners to observe the process, it has proved very beneficial for teachers to have an opportunity to come together with colleagues, both those who are experienced and new to the profession, and to reflect on our practice, thus getting inspiration to continue this neverending process of learning, teaching and learning further.
References:
1. Simon Winetroube, Ludmila Kuznetsova (eds). (2002) Specialist English Teaching and Learning – the State of the Art in Russia (Baseline Study Report). The British Council, St. Petersburg: Petropolis., p 82, 104.
2. op. cit., p 76.
3. Almabekova, O.A., Gogol, O.V., Guralnik, T.A., Zinkevich, N.A., Kuznetsova, L.B., Penkova, T.V., Petrashova, T.G., Pshegusova, G.S., Rudenko, T.P., Safronenko, O.I., Suchkova, S.A., Cheremisina, I.A.. (2005). ESP Teacher Development Course St. Petersburg: SPSU.
4. op. cit., p 9
5. Scharle, A., Szabo, A. (2000) Learner Autonomy. A Guide to Developing Learner Responsibility. Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers, CUP.
The conference workshop and this article are based on the authors’ experience of training ESP teachers from a number of Russian universities with the materials of the ESP Teacher Development Course which were created by a group of Russian professors and consultants from the UK – the project sponsored by the British Council in 2001-2005.
The course was a response to the needs of Russian teachers of English at tertiary level institutions where English is a compulsory subject for all students irrespective of their area of specialization. Preceding the development of the Course, a baseline study was conducted to identify the major problem areas of teaching and learning English for professional purposes in Russian universities. Some of the conclusions of the Baseline Study were that:
• English language classes are “generally teacher-dominated with corresponding error correction techniques and patterns of classroom interaction”
• ESP lessons are “largely based on written texts which are typically read aloud and translated”
• Students “feel comfortable with the old traditional mode of teaching and are satisfied with their teachers’ attitudes, correction techniques and classroom atmosphere as a whole.”(1)
Thus, foreign language instruction in Russia has been until recently oriented rather to learning grammar rules and drilling, memorizing lists of specialist terms, translating texts, with teachers mostly practicing directive teaching techniques. Many ESP teachers see as their primary tasks explaining rules to students, correcting their errors, providing them with materials, telling the learners exactly what to do and when. About half of the students who took part in the survey, “do not feel encouraged by their teachers to discuss the content or goals of their English course, some of them… not even being quite clear as to what it involves.” (2) To address the problem of outdated teaching methodology and to train teachers in ways reflecting the demands of the labour market their learners are preparing to enter, the RESPONSE project with the focus on in-service teacher development was carried out.
Apart from the findings of the survey, our own observations in training sessions with ESP teachers confirm the conclusions of the Baseline Study. Quite a few ESP teachers have by now participated in workshops or professional events informing them about modern methodology, the best ways to teach, the newest teaching materials and aids. Such terms as “learner autonomy”, “communicative competence”, “learning skills and learner strategies”, “content and language integrated learning” are not completely unfamiliar to them, however, when it comes to the question how certain modern concepts and principles can be applied in their everyday practice, the answers quite often reveal that, to quote one of the training course participants, “haute couture fashion displayed by trainers is not for everyday wear.” As a result, teachers stick to the well-trodden path the language instructors from their student years were using, and in the minds of these teachers there seems to exist a chasm between the “ideal’ and the “reality”, seen by many as impossible to bridge. Thus, the primary task of the “ESP Teacher Development Course”, some materials of which are used in the workshop, is to “encourage teachers to revisit and develop further their own individual philosophies of teaching” (4) by first raising their awareness of what they are guided by in their everyday practice.
Aim and focus of the workshop
The aim of the workshop is to involve its participants in reflection on one of the aspects of their practice and the principles underlying it. They will be encouraged to share ideas on their understanding of learner autonomy and how it can be developed. The questions raised are: What is learner autonomy? What should learners do to take more responsibility for their learning? How can the teacher facilitate the process?
These questions are nothing new. There are numerous publications which deal with the issue of learner autonomy, one of the most well-known being Learner Autonomy. A Guide to Developing Learner Responsibility by Scharle and Szabo, in the Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers series (4). However, although teachers generally agree that it would be good to have more responsible learners, our training practice has revealed that the assumptions teachers hold about “autonomy” in the teaching/learning process vary significantly. Russian teachers’ educational background can hardly provide them with guidance regarding “freedom and ability to manage one’s own learning” (p.4), since Russian national culture, as is the case with many other countries, would generally endorse a tightly controlled classroom with clearly defined roles of both teachers and learners, with the teacher traditionally perceived as “a font of wisdom”. Yet, the information age sets its own priorities, making life-long learning part of a young person’s reality in this rapidly changing world. So, if we do not try to develop the ability for independent learning in our students, we may be preparing them for failure, not success, in their future professional lives.
Structure of the workshop
In this workshop, the participants take part in a series of interactive activities. They will mostly benefit from engaging in discussion of the assumptions that underpin their teaching and sharing experiences and ideas. In an international setting, it is likely to provide some new insights into how the concept of learner autonomy should be treated, and how a practitioner can develop further in order to make the teaching/learning process more effective in preparing learners to use L2 in the real world. The presenters will initiate the discussion, monitor its progress and summarise the most important points arising from it.
Workshop activities
1. “Shaking up”
Step 1. (Individual reflection)
Complete the questionnaire below. Consider the following statements to indicate your opinion about each one, by ticking the relevant box 1 to 4.
1 means you strongly agree. 3 means you disagree.
2 means you agree. 4 means you strongly disagree.
1 2 3 4
1. Teachers should always know the right answers and provide students with them.
2. Students learn more effectively when they take responsibility for their own learning **.
3. Encouraging students to correct each other’s work only serves to fossilize those mistakes in their memory.
4. It is the teacher who should decide on the materials and the tasks to be done by the learners.
Step 2. (Small group discussion)
• Work in small groups and discuss your opinions.
• Choose the most controversial issue.
Step3. (Plenary)
• Put forward the most controversial issues and discuss them in a plenary.
Step 3. (Individual reflection and small group discussion)
Choose one of the two questions that follow and think about it for 3-4 minutes, writing your answers down.
Share your ideas in small groups.
1. What should teachers do to develop learner autonomy? (What do you do in your classes?)
2. What students need to de to become more responsible and autonomous learners?
Step 4.(Reflection)
• Complete the quotation ‘The authority of those who teach is often … to those who want to learn.’ (Cicero)
Step5. (Plenary)
Share your ideas with other participants.
2. Metaphorically Speaking
Step1. (Individual reflection and small group discussion)
• Think of a metaphor for your ESP/ELT classroom
• Discuss them in small groups
Step 2 . (Plenary)
• Choose a volunteer to describe the images of your group
• Pick up a poster (from those suggested by the facilitators) and together with representatives of other groups rank the posters reflecting teachers’ perceptions of the process of learning from more teacher-oriented to more learner-centered
• Discuss the underlying assumptions.
Some examples of posters (produced by participants of the TD course in 2005-2008)
• Flower garden (T - sun/rain, Ss - flowers)
• Walk in the forest (T - path, Ss - travellers)
• Organs (T - heart, Ss - brain)
• Woodcarving/Jewel making (T - carpenter/jeweler, Ss - wood/stones)
• Circus (T - tamer, Ss - lions)
• Interconnected vessels
Discussion
Discussion that generally follows the above activities concentrates on what teachers and learners should do in and outside the classroom to foster learner responsibility, students’ active involvement in their own learning.
Much of responsibility for success in language learning rests with individual learners, and their ability to take full advantage of the opportunity to learn. We, language teachers, should heighten their awareness of how to learn, focus on helping our students find, process and apply the information they have found. Teacher’s instruction should help learners become more conscious of the strategies they use or could learn to use - why and when specific strategies are important, how to apply appropriate language learning strategies, how to transfer them to new situations.
Therefore, the role of the teacher should undergo profound changes. The teacher’s status can be no longer based only on hierarchical authority. The teacher’s primary role is to guide and assist discovery. They should create conditions conducive to the learners’ reflection on their work and cooperative development. The new, challenging functions are to be taken on by the teacher, such as facilitator, helper, guide, consultant, advisor, coordinator, and co-communicator.
What often happens in the classrooms so far is vividly described in the following extract from a TD course participant’s diary:
“Some teachers are afraid of creative and clever students, those who ask questions. They want them to be silent and listen. They are not interested in students’ opinions. Some teachers love students too much and ‘water’ them with knowledge. They let them wait for the result to come with the teacher’s help and stay passive. Some teachers look at their students as if they are enemies to fight against. They never try to be patient, tolerant or understanding. Some teachers give all the freedom to students and prefer to observe them without interfering in the process. Students do whatever they want without clear goals or tangible results.” (Yelena Mescheryakova, a university teacher of English)
What should teachers do to develop learner autonomy?
Teachers should share information with learners about planning the classroom process, delegating tasks and decision to them. The process of learning for the students should become more self-directed, problem-oriented and action-based.
Teachers show students the variety of available strategies of learning, encourage them to explore and expand their abilities. They make sure that their teaching is targeted at the real needs of the students. They should also be flexible enough to allow for adjustments that would make the learning/teaching process more relevant to their students’ situation. They clearly establish expectations and provide for consistent control.
The first step towards reaching the goal of autonomy could be a well-thought through system of tasks and activities which integrate all the skills; a better organization of students’ individual research, wider use of the Internet. Teachers let learners make tests and correct mistakes, produce materials for the classroom. They should stimulate their students’ desire to search for information by themselves, which would benefit both teachers and learners, as students can gradually gain greater confidence, involvement and proficiency.
What do students need to do to become more responsible and autonomous learners?
Learners should, first of all, develop awareness of their new role in the process of learning and teaching and understanding of its importance for their future life in the rapidly changing world. They should be prepared to be more active, which involves taking risks. Learners should realize that they can be the source of materials and activities. If students bring to class what is important to them, it motivates them, stimulates interest in the subject and guarantees their maximum involvement. Students’ active participation in lesson planning and preparation of materials can help meet their needs, and make learning meaningful, efficient and relevant to their future occupation. Students learn to reflect on their learning styles and strategies, consciously developing those that are effective for them. They rely on each other. Peer teaching and team tasks train them to work cooperatively, which is a very important social skill. Each has to make a valid contribution that fosters everybody's learning. When students take more responsibility for what happens in the language classroom, more learning occurs, and they should realize it.
Conclusion
The workshop aim can be considered to be reached if meaningful discussion has occurred, in the process of which teachers were able to compare their beliefs and professional experiences with those of the others, have aired their ideas and, ideally, got some insights into what they can change about their ways of teaching and learning. The term “life-long learning” is a fairly recent addition to an educator’s vocabulary but teachers have always known that to be successful in their profession they have to learn continually, and most of us have been doing so throughout their careers. However, teaching being what it is – work done mostly in the confines of the classroom with only one’s learners to observe the process, it has proved very beneficial for teachers to have an opportunity to come together with colleagues, both those who are experienced and new to the profession, and to reflect on our practice, thus getting inspiration to continue this neverending process of learning, teaching and learning further.
References:
1. Simon Winetroube, Ludmila Kuznetsova (eds). (2002) Specialist English Teaching and Learning – the State of the Art in Russia (Baseline Study Report). The British Council, St. Petersburg: Petropolis., p 82, 104.
2. op. cit., p 76.
3. Almabekova, O.A., Gogol, O.V., Guralnik, T.A., Zinkevich, N.A., Kuznetsova, L.B., Penkova, T.V., Petrashova, T.G., Pshegusova, G.S., Rudenko, T.P., Safronenko, O.I., Suchkova, S.A., Cheremisina, I.A.. (2005). ESP Teacher Development Course St. Petersburg: SPSU.
4. op. cit., p 9
5. Scharle, A., Szabo, A. (2000) Learner Autonomy. A Guide to Developing Learner Responsibility. Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers, CUP.
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