Developing Integrated Language Skills through the Teaching of Reading Comprehension in Content Area

Developing Integrated Language Skills through the Teaching of Reading Comprehension in Content Area

ABSTRACT English is considered as an important tool in global competition and cooperation through utilization of science and technology as well as trade, commerce and other human-interaction activities. Therefore, as an important foreign language in Indonesia, English is taught in all levels of education, at junior and senior high schools, and universities. There has been a systematic relationship between the teaching of English at high schools and universities. The teaching in non-English department at universities as a continuation of that at high schools is more specific in nature. It serves as academic purposes especially to equip university students with the ability to acquire knowledge in their field of study. Due to many reasons, the result of teaching is still unsatisfactory. Whereas, the number of university students in non-English departments exceeds that in English departments. Therefore, English lecturers in non-English departments should make an attempt to find an alternative technique and strategy to improve the English teaching. The importance of having reading skills for a learner has been suggested by many experts, as the following: Of the four English language skills, reading is probably the one that is used most by EFL and ESL students in academic context (Carel, 1989; Lynch & Hudson, 1991, cited in Grabe, 1994: 137). Reading is the core of the syllabus because by reading a book most students learn. These opinions are supported by Kenna & Robinson (1990: 12; Bright, 1986: 52) who state that the ability or skills to use reading and writing to acquire new content within their subjects or disciplines are needed. Only through the ability of reading can learners develop knowledge and skills essential for independent learning. Therefore, the purpose of teaching reading should primarily be helping students acquire the strategies needed for comprehending the materials to acquire new knowledge in their subjects (Musthafa, 1997: 37). With this in view, English lecturers should make various efforts teach students properly in order to make them independent learners. Based on the top-down approach, the schemata theories, and the research result on the effectiveness of reading strategies applied in content area reading comprehension, the writer shares her experience in teaching integrated skills during teaching content area reading comprehension. With this experience, she believes that actually teachers can not only develop students’ reading skills but also other language skills such as their listening, speaking, and writing skills during teaching reading comprehension. Using general concepts and theories of teaching reading comprehension as a point of reference, this article will discuss (1) the theories underlying the teaching of reading comprehension, (2) the understanding of reading comprehension and teaching reading comprehension, (3) recent research findings in reading, (4) integrated skills through teaching reading comprehension, and propose (5) a model of integrated skills instruction. Key Words: Content Area; EAP; Integrated Skills Strategy.

1. Introduction

Research on reading in a second or foreign language has been much developed recently. One of the purposes is, of course, as an effort to improve second or foreign language reading instruction. The importance of having reading skills for a learner has also been suggested by many experts, as the following:

Of the four English language skills, reading is probably the one that is used most by EFL and ESL students in academic context (Carel, 1989; Lynch & Hudson, 1991, cited in Grabe, 1994: 137). Reading is the core of the syllabus because by reading a book most students learn. Only by reading can students acquire more knowledge when they want to learn new content in their discipline and when they leave schools. In fact, professional competence, higher education, and general knowledge rely on the quantity and quality of reading (Bright, 1986: 52). These opinions are supported by Kenna & Robinson (1990: 12) who state that the ability or skills to use reading and writing to acquire new content within their subjects or disciplines are needed. Only through the ability of reading can learners develop knowledge and skills essential for independent learning. Therefore, the purpose of teaching reading should primarily be helping students acquire the strategies needed for comprehending the materials to acquire new knowledge in their subjects (Musthafa, 1997: 37).

With this in view, English teachers should make various efforts teach students properly in order to make them independent learners. Based on the theories discussed in this article, the writer suggests that actually teachers can not only develop students’ reading skills but also other language skills such as their listening, speaking, and writing skills during teaching reading comprehension.

This article will discuss (1) the theories underlying the teaching of reading comprehension, (2) the understanding of reading comprehension and teaching reading comprehension, (3) recent research findings in reading, (4) integrated skills through teaching reading, and propose (5) a model of integrated skills instruction.

2. Theories Underlying the Teaching of Reading Comprehension

2.1. Bottom-up and Top-Down Views on Reading

Current approaches to the teaching of reading comprehension emphasize that two complementary processes appear to be involved in reading and listening. One referred to as “bottom-up processing,” involves decoding the incoming utterances or message and making use of the linguistic signals actually transmitted. Bottom-up processing involves such things as identifying and distinguishing words, structures, grammar, and other features of the message (Long & Richard, 1987: 159; Brown, 1994: 284; Grabe, 1994: 142; Nunan, 1998: 63). Furthermore, Brown states that in this process, readers must first recognize a multiplicity of linguistic signals (letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases, grammatical cues, discourse markers) and use their linguistic data processing mechanisms to impose some sort of order on these signals. This data-driven processing obviously requires a sophisticated knowledge of the language itself. Then, the reader selects from among all this information those data that make sense, cohere, and mean. However, according to Cambourne (1979), cited in Nunan (1998: 63), it is the basis of the vast majority of reading schemes. He provides the following illustration of how the process is supposed to work:

Print→ Every letter (discriminated) → Phonemes and graphemes (matched) → Blending → Pronunciation →Meaning

According to this model, the reader processes each letter as it is encountered. These letters or graphemes, are matched with the phonemes of the language, which it is assumed the reader already knows. These phonemes, the minimal units of meaning in the sound system of the language, are blended together to form words. The derivation of meaning is thus the end process in which the language is translated from one form of symbolic representation to another. In fact, the assumption that phonic analysis skills are all that is needed to become a successful independent reader is questionable with first as well as second language readers.

Then, Goodman and Burke (1972), cited in Nunan (1998: 65; Carrell & Eisterhold, 1987: 219) found in their research that something more than mechanical decoding is going on when readers process texts. This result leads to the postulation of an alternative to the bottom-up, phonics approach. It is known as the top-down or psycholinguistic approach to reading. Top-down or psycholinguistic approach to reading basically emphasizes the reconstruction of meaning rather than decoding of form. The reader rather than the text is at the heart of the reading process. The top-down processing emphasizes on reader interpretation and prior knowledge (Long & Richard, 1987: 159; Grabe, 1994: 142). Cambourne (1979), cited in Nunan (1998: 65) provides the following schematization of the approach.

Past experience, language intuitions and expectations → Selective aspects of print → Meaning → Sound, pronunciation if necessary.

The interaction of the reader and the text is central to the process, and readers bring to this interaction their knowledge of the subject at hand, knowledge and expectation about how language works, motivation, interest and attitudes towards the content of the text. Rather than decoding each symbol, or even every word, the reader forms hypotheses about text elements and then samples the text to determine whether or not the hypotheses are correct. Oller (1979), cited in Nunan (1998: 66), supporting this approach also stresses the importance of taking into consideration psychological as well as linguistic factors in accounting how people read. He points out that the link between our knowledge of linguistic forms and our knowledge of the world is very close. Thus this approach emphasizes the importance of readers’ background knowledge in the process of reading.

2.2. Schema Theory and Background Knowledge

The theories of Psychology play an important role in creating the schema theory. One of the most widely reported theories in cognitive psychology literature is Minsky’s theory (Nunan, 1998: 67). Minsky suggests that human memory consists of sets of stereotypical situations (frames) which guide comprehension by providing a frame work for making sense of new experiences. Terms chosen by cognitive psychologists and computer specialists include frames, scripts, scenarios, and schemata. A schema is a knowledge structure. It can be concept or a set of related concepts and it can be about objects, ideas, or phenomena (Anderson, Spiro, & Anderson, 1977, Rumelhart, 1981, cited in Irwin, 1986: 103; Roe et al., 1987: 83). This schema theory is based on the top-down approach.

Schema is the technical term used by cognitive scientists to describe how people organize and store information in their heads and the original patterns of thinking, and mental structures that people use for dealing with what happens in the environment. The interrelated patterns constructed from our previous experience of the experiential world guide us as we make sense of new experiences, and also enable us to make predictions about what we might expect to experience in a given context (Vacca, 1993: 31; Rice, 1996: 39). Widdowson (1983), cited in Nunan (1998: 68) has reinterpreted schema theory from an applied linguistic perspective. He postulates two levels of language: a systemic level and a schematic level. The systemic level includes the phonological, morphological and syntactic elements of the language, while the schematic level relates to our background knowledge. This background knowledge exercises an executive function over the systemic level of language. In comprehending a given piece of language, we use interpretative procedures for achieving a match between our schematic knowledge and the language which is encoded systematically

With the insight that there is more to comprehension that the words on the page has come an attempt to provide a theoretical model which will explain the way that our background knowledge guides comprehension processes. Comprehension simply cannot take place when nothing is already known because there is nothing to which the reader can link the new. Therefore, reading comprehension is viewed as a process of relating the new to the known. Readers understand what they read only when it relates to what they already know (Anderson & Pearson, 1984 cited in Sweet, 1993; Bransford, Stein & Shelton, 1984, Kintsch & Van Dijk, 1978, Wilson & Anderson, 1986, cited in Grabe, 1994: 141; Irwin, 1986: 102; Pearson and Johnson (1978), cited in Nunan, 1998: 68). Skill in reading depends on the efficient interaction between linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world (Ckarke and Silberstein, 1977: 136-137, cited in Carrell & Eisterhold, 1987: 220)

Thus, it can be said that a schema functions in at least three ways when a match occurs between students’ prior knowledge and text material. They are providing a framework for learning that allows readers to seek and select information that is relevant to their purposes for reading, helping readers to organize text information, and helping readers to elaborate information.

2.3. Recent Research Findings in Reading

A number of studies cited in Nunan (1998: 69-71) show how the schematic knowledge strongly affects the comprehension processes of second language readers. Aslanian’s study (1985) shows that schematic knowledge structure can either facilitate or inhibit comprehension according to whether they are over or underutilized. Nunan’ s study (1985) shows that background knowledge is a more significant factor than grammatical complexity in determining the subjects’ comprehension of the textual relationship in question. Steffensen’s study (1981) identifies that when readers are exposed to texts which describe aspect of culture foreign to the reader, there will be a breakdown in the perception of textual relationships. A breakdown in relationships at the linguistic level reflects a breakdown in comprehension at the experiential level, that is, at the level of content. The pedagogical implication of her study is that what, at first sight, is a linguistic problem, may, in fact, be a problem of background knowledge.

Taylor (1979), cited in Irwin (1986), found that poor readers seem to be more vulnerable to the effects of topic familiarity in term of the amount recalled than are good readers. Based on multiple sources such as Oaken, Wiener, Cromer, Rothkopt, Roe et al. (1987: 84) also synthesizes that organization of content is an important component of reading comprehension because comprehension is building bridges between the new and the known. The implication is that students are in strategic position to learn with texts whenever they utilize prior knowledge to construct meaning for new material that they are studying.

Readers need a good knowledge of formal discourse structure (formal schemata). Knowing how a text is organized affects the comprehension of the text. Textual schemata are composed of a reader’s knowledge of the structural characteristics of written content and provide the general outline. They can use their knowledge of a particular form of writing to predict, follow, and organize the material they read (Grabe, 1994: 141). Hierarchical summary procedures and mapping are two ways to encourage readers to construct a diagram of ideas. Anderson (1980), as cited in Irwin (1986: 54), found them to be successful techniques for improving students’ recall.

Based on the study conducted by Soranastaporn (2003) in Mahidol University, reading strategies must be trained because strategy training can be very useful in improving the use of language learning strategies. The implication of the study conducted by Prappal (2003) is that the reading skills taught in the EAP class might benefit less-skilled readers in comprehending EAP texts.

3. Reading Comprehension and Teaching Reading Comprehension

3.1. Reading Comprehension

Goodman and Smith suggested that reading was a selective process and was not basically a process of picking up information from the page in word –by- word manner. Good readers used their background knowledge and related it with the author intended meaning, predicted information, sampled the text, made the necessary inferences, and confirm the prediction (Grabe, 1994: 140; Long, 1987: 219; Brown, 1994: 284). This theory has influenced ESL reading theory and instructions from the late 1970s to the present. The 1980s was a decade in which many ESL reading theories and practices developed Goodman and Smith’s perspectives on reading (Bernhard, 1991; cited in Grabe, 1994: 139).

As has been synthesized by Grabe (1994: 139) from various sources (Cf. Anderson, Hiebert, Scott & Wikinson, 1985; Grabe, 1988; Hall, White & Guthrie, 1986: Smith, 1982), a description of reading has to consider the notions that fluent reading is rapid, purposeful, interactive, comprehending, flexible, and gradually developing. It means that:

1. Fluent reading is rapid; the flow of information at a sufficient rate needs to be maintained to make connections and inferences essential for comprehension.
2. Reading is purposeful; the reader has a purpose in reading. In the academic world, for example, the purpose is for obtaining information.
3. Reading is interactive. It means that many skills work together simultaneously in the process. The reader makes use of the information from his/her background knowledge and information intended by the author.
4. Reading is comprehending; the reader usually expects to understand what he/she is reading.
5. Reading is flexible; the reader uses a set of strategies to read efficiently.
6. Reading develops gradually; the reader does not become fluent suddenly, or immediately following a reading development course. Fluent reading is the product of a long-term effort and gradual improvement.

Spratt (1986:65) even stated that:

some of the main reading skills required by the general EFL students are recognizing the letters of the alphabet, reading words, understanding the means of punctuation, the meaning of vocabulary items, the grammar of the sentence, the relationship between sentence and clause in a text, recognizing the effect of the style, the organization of a text, making inferences, skimming or gist macro, scanning for specific information, and reading for detail.

The above ideas principally respond to Irwin’s (1986: 9) stating that:

comprehension is an active process to which each reader brings his or her individual attitudes, interests, expectations, skills, and prior knowledge. It is as the process of using one’s own prior experiences (reader context) and the writer’s cues (text context) to infer the author’s intended meaning. This process can involve microprocesses, integrative processes, macroprocesses, and elaborative processes. These processes work together and can be controlled and adjusted by the reader as required by the reader’s goals (metacognitive processes) and the total situation in which comprehension is taking place (situational context).

In a slightly different statement, Roe, et al. (1996: 122- 207) clarifies that the essential reading skills and abilities needed in reading content materials are summarized as follows: understanding special concepts and vocabulary; identifying main ideas and supporting details; locating facts or specific details; organizing reading material by determining sequence, drawing conclusions, and finding cause-and-effect relationship; locating information and using reference materials; reading and interpreting graphic aids; adjusting rate to purpose, difficulty and type of content; comprehending at the literal, inferential, critical, and creative levels; developing the habit of extensive reading; and activating background knowledge and experience.

Grabe (1994: 140-141) synthesizes various sources (i.e., Carpebetr & Just, 1986; Carr & Levy, 1990; Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989) as follows:

The fluent reading which is a complex process is explained by analyzing the process into a set of component skills: at least there are six general component skills and knowledge areas such as automatic recognition skills, vocabulary and structure knowledge, formal discourse structure knowledge, content background knowledge, synthesis and evaluation skill/ strategies, and metacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring.

At last, Nunan (1998: 67) also defines discourse comprehension as a process of utilizing linguistic cues and background knowledge to reconstruct meaning.

3.2.The Teaching of Reading Comprehension

With this in view, the teaching of reading comprehension should be based on the theories mentioned above. In fact, the development of teaching reading comprehension has been discussed in various literatures in which experts introduced different concepts about the reading comprehension instruction. Chastain (1989: 86) introduces that the ultimate objective of teaching reading comprehension is to enable the students to comprehend written text which is considered appropriate to their level. According to Alexander (1989: 125), for example, teaching reading should be focused on three levels of comprehension skills, namely, literal, inferential, and evaluation comprehension levels. Heber (1980: 74) offers literal, inferential, and application level. Some other writers propose four levels, such as Barret (1985: 85), cited in Roe (1987: 94), and Anderson (1980: 243). They classify them into literal, inferential, evaluation, and appreciation levels.

Literal comprehension as the lowest level requires the recall or recognition of information and ideas explicitly stated in the text being read. Inferential comprehension requires the use of interpretation and prediction, and the reader’s personal knowledge in making inferences such as main ideas. Evaluation comprehension requires the reader to make judgment and be critical on the content of the text. Application level requires the reader to be able to apply the concepts or ideas into the real life situation. At last, appreciation level has to do with the reader’s emotional reaction to various elements of content.

Although many writers explain reading skills in different ways, the ideas are similar. Principally, the reading skills required are understanding main ideas and supporting ideas intended by the author, relating prior knowledge with those ideas, evaluating, and making inferences and flexible adjustment of strategies used to comprehend the reading text (Willis, 1985: 142-143; Bright & McGregor, 1986: 56-57; Matthews, et al., 1986: 65; Long & Richards, 1987: 218-224; Garbutt & Kerry, 1996: 12- 44).

Those understandings imply that the objective of teaching reading comprehension should be helping learners to develop all of the reading comprehension skills. The teaching techniques and strategies should be directed to achieve those objectives.

3.3. Content Area Reading

English for Specific Purposes is an approach provided to the course in which the teaching of a language can be adjusted to the specific needs and purposes of the learner. The commands of English given are usually related to a specific job, or subject, or purpose (Hutchinson, 1986: 19). English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is a branch of ESP in that the teaching content is matched to the requirements of the learners. The purpose of EAP course is to enable the students to function adequately in a target situation. The target situation here means the situation in which the students will use the language they are learning.

In higher education, EAP can be said to relate to the study of discipline, e.g. physics, agriculture, law, economics, etc. (Richards, 2001: 33; Strevents, 1983: 91). The first stage in any EAP course is to find out exactly why the students are learning English and, therefore, what language skills they need. If the purpose of teaching is to help students become independent learners, the method of teaching should be directed to achieve it. According to Vacca (1993: xiii), texts are important tools in the development of independent learners and they might represent a single written word, a paragraph, several pages, a chapter, or an entire book. On the other hand, the materials must also be relevant to the learners’ need and interest. The standard way of achieving this is to take texts from the learners’ specialist area (Hutchinson, 1987: 8).

Content area reading involves factual, expository writing such as found in science, social studies, and other academic disciplines (Elkin: 2003). Based on Hudson’s study, cited in Prappal (2003: 1), the content comprehension approach can improve reading comprehension as well as knowledge of reading grammar and general ability to read English for science and technology.

4. Integrated Language Skills through Teaching Reading Comprehension

The development of the language skills such as speaking, listening, reading and writing skills, can be integrated into the teaching of reading comprehension. In order to integrate the language skills in ESL/EFL instruction, teachers should consider taking these steps (Rebecca, 2001):

1. Learn more about the various ways to integrate language skills in the classroom (e.g., content-based, task-based, or a combination).
2. Reflect on their current approach and evaluate the extent to which the skills are integrated.
3. Choose instructional materials, textbooks, and technologies that promote the integration of listening, reading, speaking, and writing, as well as the associated skills of syntax, vocabulary, and so on.
4. Even if a given course is labeled according to just one skill, remember that it is possible to integrate the other language skills through appropriate tasks.
5. Teach language learning strategies and emphasize that a given strategy can often enhance performance in multiple skills.

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Comprehension has been defined as building bridges between the new and the known, and cannot take place when nothing is already known because, then, there is nothing to which the reader can link the new. With this in view, applying the schema theory is one of the strategies to develop the integrated skills. Based on cues in the text, we select the schema to be used for comprehension. This schema can determine what prior knowledge elaborations are made. Elaboration improves recall and increase enjoyment. The most typical types of elaborations are(1) making predictions, (2) integrating the information with prior knowledge, (3) responding affectively, and (5) responding with higher-level thinking process (Irwin, 1986).

If students are actively interacting with the content they are reading, they will make prior knowledge elaboration. They will gear these elaborations toward specific purposes. Thus encouraging students to think about what already know before reading, giving them a purpose for reading, and getting them actively involved in the material will be useful for encouraging prior-knowledge elaborations. Pre-reading and during-reading activities will lead to prior-knowledge elaborations. These activities can also be used to stimulate conversation and discussion, and encourage the students to practice listening and speaking skills.

As with the listening and speaking skills, the writing component should be an integrated part of the teaching program and should reflect the interests and needs of the students. Rather than teach writing exercises and grammar drills in isolation, the teacher should assign written work that reinforces what the students have already heard, spoken and read. The steps suggested in the teaching model include written work to support the spoken word. The writing that the students do should be taught in a meaningful context rather than in isolation.

To integrate reading and writing, study guides, hierarchical summary procedure, construct procedures, and mapping strategies can be applied. Recent research has repeatedly shown that readers who use the author’s organizational pattern to organize their own memory of the passage actually recall more than those who do not (Elliot, 1980; Meyer, Brandt, & Bluth, 1980, cited in Irwin, 1986: 48). When applied, those strategies can focus the students’ attention on the appropriate organizational patterns. At the end of the lesson, students are asked to make a conclusion and write the summary of the text discussed.

The lesson plan must include various tasks and activities designed to assist the teacher in developing students’ English language skills as well as increasing their understanding of content knowledge. Students will study the familiar text, complete tasks both individually and in pairs or groups, and participate in activities that develop listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. The familiar text is important to make the students remember more while reading (Chiesi, Spilich, & Voss, 1978; Spilich, Vesonder, Chiesi & Voss 1979, cited in Irwin, 1986: 102).

At last, adapted from various sources, it is said that readers who comprehend know the goal of reading, activate prior knowledge, use their knowledge of text structure, concentrate on ideas, ask themselves question while reading, test their inferences, and evaluate meaning (Vacca, 1993; Roe, 1987; Irwin, 1987). Thus these strategies must be taken into account in the integrated language skills instruction.

4. 1. Model of Integrated Language Skills Instruction

The lesson divided into pre-reading activities, during-reading activities, and after-reading activities must include the tasks and activities of four integrated language skills. The example of the text taught is” Types of Manager” cited in Management Book (Stearns, 1987: 24-25).

LESSON PLAN

Level : The first year students

Lesson : Reading Comprehension

Instructional Objectives :

· Activating students’ prior knowledge

· Developing integrated language skills

· Training the students to apply reading strategies

· By the end of the class, students should be able to:

a. identify the ideas of the text such as understanding the definition of manager, classifications of manager, types of manager, tasks and responsibilities of manager, and examples of each type of manager;

b. draw the chart of ideas of the text;

c. understand what they have comprehended from the text and make a conclusion;

d. make a summary of the text based on the chart of ideas using their own words.

Purpose of Reading : Finding the information stated in the instructional objectives.

Skill Focus : Integrated language skills emphasized on the reading skills.

Time : 100 minutes

Material : Types of Manager (Stearns, 1987)

Teaching Aids : Whiteboard, markers, photocopy of text, and loudspeaker.

Technique : Modeling and guided reading

1. Pre-reading Activities (15 minutes)

During these activities, the students’ listening and speaking skills can be encouraged and practiced.

Steps:

a. Introduce the subject of the essay/text;

b. Do brainstorming and remind the strategies used in reading such as surveying, skimming, scanning, previewing, finding the main ideas, predicting, elaborating, mapping, self-monitoring, and evaluating.

c. Set the purpose of reading together with the students; identify the definition of manager, types of manager, tasks and responsibilities of manager, function of manager, and examples of each manager.

d. Through discussion, activate students’ prior knowledge related to the text. Examples: Have you ever known a manager? Where do managers usually work? What does “manager” mean to you, then? What kind of manager do you like best? Why?

e. Introduce the lesson by giving them a photocopy of the text.

2. During-reading Activities (65 minutes)

During these activities all language skills can be integrated and developed. The teacher can review the tasks with the students together; modeling and guided reading techniques can be applied.

Steps:

1. Ask the students to complete the tasks as they read the text silently;
2. Ask the students to circle unfamiliar words or expressions, underline ideas they do not understand, make notes in the margins about sections of the text they would like to discuss or ask about. Then, explain to the students that scanning is a useful reading skill for quickly finding specific information such as new vocabulary words or idiomatic expressions. To scan, the students should read through a text quickly as they search for specific words, expressions, names, or numbers.
3. Ask the students to look up the unfamiliar words in a dictionary and explain that guessing the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary words and expressions using the surrounding context is an important skill for improving reading comprehension. This activity will also make them better readers. Ask them to practice the skills of scanning and guessing words from context as they complete the tasks in this section. Guide them to practice the dictionary as they complete the task for about 5 minutes.
4. Ask the students to carefully read the essay a second time for better understanding. Tell them that to understand the meaning of a word as it is used in a reading, they should read at least twice the sentences surrounding the unfamiliar word and use their understanding of these sentences to make a guess at the intended meaning, and tell them that they may not guess the precise meaning, but even a general understanding of an unfamiliar word can improve their comprehension of a text.
5. To comprehend the ideas on the text, ask some questions in which the answers are provided on the text. Examples: After reading the text, how do you define “a manager”? There are two classifications of manager. What are the classifications based on?
6. If it is possible, make a table that must be filled in by the students with the instruction as the following: Complete the tables below with the information contained in the text!

No.	Types of Manager	Position	Task & Responsibility

7. Again, to encourage them to practice their listening and speaking skills and to elaborate their ideas to the real-life situations, assign the following questions for class or group discussion. Provide them 15-20 minutes to discuss the following questions:

1. In your opinion, can the top management in the above text refer to the top managers? Why? Why not?

2. Can the goal of the organization be achieved by the manager alone? Why? Why not?

3. Do you agree that the main task of manager is only related to internal affairs within the organization? Why? Why not?

4. How many managers does an organization need? Why?

5. Based on your own knowledge, provide examples of each type of manager!

To prepare the students for oral discussion, follow the steps listed below.

1. Arrange them into pairs or groups of three to four students.
2. Ask each pair or group to choose one student to read the questions aloud.
3. Ask each pair or group to choose one student to record the answers.
4. Ask each group to choose other members to present the answers to the class.
5. Give them a fixed time period to discuss the questions and complete the tasks before presenting their responses to the class.
6. Call on each group to present their responses to the class.

2. After-reading Activities (20 minutes)

During these activities, again all language skills can be integrated. The students reflect what they have read by applying the mapping strategy and completing the chart of ideas contained in the text. Besides, the students’ writing skills can be practiced by asking them to make a conclusion and the summary of the text using their own words.

Steps:

1. Ask the students to complete the chart of the ideas contained in the text (Group discussion or conferencing);
2. Ask them to make a conclusion of the text (Oral and written);
3. Ask them to make the summary of the text based on the map of ideas using their own words for homework which must be submitted in the following week. Remember that the written homework must be corrected and returned to the students.

5. Conclusion and Suggestions

From the above discussion it can be concluded that the integrated language skills including speaking, listening, reading, and writing, can simultaneously be developed through the teaching of reading comprehension. This integrated skills instruction must be planned in such a way that all language skills are displayed in the classroom tasks and activities. Although the development of reading skills involves qualitatively different processes from the development of oral language ability, both are underpinned by certain principles.

Reading comprehension involves various processes that can be taught to the students through various strategies. It is those strategies which stimulate the students’ language skills performed. With careful reflection and planning, any teacher can integrate the language skills and strengthen the tapestry of language teaching and learning. When the tapestry is woven well, learners can use English effectively.

With this in view, the writer suggests that any teacher who intends to apply the integrated language skills instruction through the teaching of reading comprehension should:

● be able to select the materials which the students have been familiar with so they have owned prior knowledge about the topic;

● be able to make questions that can develop the four language skills;

● possess not only language knowledge but also content knowledge; and

● have teaching competences.

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.Willis, Jane. 1986. Teaching English Through English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

APPENDIX:

Types of Manager

(Stearn, 1987: 24-25)

We have been using the term “manager” to mean anyone who is responsible for subordinates and other organizational resources. There are many different types of managers, with diverse tasks and responsibilities. Managers can be classified in two ways: by their level in the organization, so-called first-line, middle, and top managers, and by the range of organizational activities for which they are responsible, so-called functional and general managers.

Management Levels

First-line Managers

The lowest level in an organization at which individuals are responsible for the work of others is called first-line or first level management. First-line managers direct operating employees only. They do not supervise other managers. Example of first-line managers are the foreman or production supervisors in manufacturing plant, the technical supervisors in a research department, and the clerical supervisor in a large office. Note that the first-level managers are often called supervisors.

Middle Managers

The term middle management can refer to more than one level in an organization. Middle managers direct the activities of other managers and sometimes also those of operating employees. A principal responsibility of middle managers is to direct the activities that implement the policies of the organization. A plant manager in an electronic firm is an example of a middle manager.

Top Managers

Composed of a comparatively small group of executives, to management is responsible for the overall management of the organization. It establishes operating policies and guides the organization’s interactions with its environment. Typical titles of top managers are “chief executive officer”, “president”, and “senior vice-president”. Actual titles vary from one organization to another and are not always a reliable guide to membership in the highest management classification.

Functional and General Managers

The other major classification of managers depends on the scope of the activities they manage. The functional managers are responsible for only one organizational activity, such as production, marketing, sales, or finance. The people and activities headed by a functional manger will be engaged in a common set of activities. The general manager, on the other hand, oversees a complex unit, such as a company, a subsidiary, or an independent operating division. He or she will be responsible for all the activities of that unit, such as its production, marketing, sales, and finance.

A small company may have only one general manager, its president or executive vice-president, but a large organization may have several, each at the head of a relatively independent division. In a large company, for example, there might be a grocery product division, a refrigerated product division, and a frozen food product division, with a different general manager responsible for each. Like the chief executive of a small company, each of these divisional heads would be responsible for all the activities of the unit.

T

DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE AMONG INDONE SIAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH: A FACTOR TO TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION

DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE AMONG INDONE SIAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH: A FACTOR TO TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION

Introduction

ELT practitioners in Indonesia probably find this argument acceptable today: globalization is now creating the world to become a global ‘village’ and English, the primary lingua franca, plays an important role in this global village. As for Indonesians the ability to communicate in English is a crucial need to survive, compete, and succeed in the village. The practitioners may also find communicative teaching methodology not a new concept in their teaching. They believe that Indonesian learners of English should be taught in such a way that they achieve communicative competence. The learners, especially the advanced ones, are expected to be able to employ communicative strategies correctly and appropriately when they interact with native and other non-native speakers of English. However, it is argued that, in addition to communicative competence, Indonesian learners of English also have to achieve intercultural competence.

This paper will first provide three descriptive snapshots showing intercultural problems. Second, it will propose that the practice of communicative language teaching in Indonesia should purposefully consider cultural content for Indonesian learners of English. Next, it will define what intercultural competence means and how the concept is related to describe some possible intercultural encounters that they may experience in the global village. Finally, it will suggest various strategies to turn intercultural conflicts into mutual understanding.

Intercultural Aspects in Learning English

We would like to begin our discussion with the following three events.

Snapshot 1. “Mike Burgess, a Texan-born program manager recently came to Indonesia to manage a multicultural venture. When Mike arranged his first Friday meeting with team members of various nationalities, he expected everyone to appear at 9 a. m. But three of the six Indonesian members did not arrive until 9:20 a. m. Worse, the three Indonesians brought along three uninvited members from their own staffs. Meanwhile, the four Japanese members of the team reorganized their seats so that they could sit together. When the meeting finally got underway at 9:45 a. m., Mike moved from discussing the agenda and objectives to inviting his guests to pose questions. No one volunteed a question - until Mike remembered that, as the senior Indonesian, Mr. Budi had to be invited to present his comments before everyone else could pose questions.

During the discussion that followed, Mike became annoyed by the tendency of Indonesian members to lead their conversations down side tracts - rather than discussions of results and objectives. Then, Mike and Robert, the American technical director, became enraged in a heated, open disagreement that surprised both the Indonesian and Japanese teams. During the break that followed, the Indonesians were offended that Mike had ordered coffee - but no snacks. When the meeting reconvened, and Mike tried to call the participants to a democratic vote on a key decision, Mr. Yamaguchi, the Japanese team leader, asked for a delay of a week so that he could consult with his headquarters in Tokyo. Mike openly expressed his frustration at his further delay, and Yamaguchi seized the opportunity seized the opportunity to criticize Mike for an annoying workplace habit: Why, Yamaguchi asked, did Mike send so many e-mail messages to Yamaguchi, even though he worked only twenty-five feet away?” (Elashmawi, 1997).

Snapshot 2. “An American woman visiting England was repeatedly offended - even on bad days enraged - when two Britons ignored her in settings in which she thought they should pay attention. For example, she was sitting at a booth on a railroad-station cafeteria. A couple began to settle into the opposite seat in the same booth. They unloaded their luggage; they laid their coats on the seat; he asked what she would like to eat and went off to get it; she slid into the booth facing the American. And throughout all this, they showed no sign of having noticed that someone was already sitting in the booth.

When the British woman lit up a cigarette, the American had a concrete object for her anger. She began ostentatiously looking around for another table to move to. Of course there was none; that’s why the British couple had sat in her booth in the first place. The smoker immediately crushed out her cigarette and apologized. This showed that she had noticed that someone else was sitting in the booth, and that she was not inclined to disturb her. But then she went back pretending the American wasn’t there, a ruse in which her husband collaborated when he returned with their food and they ate it. To the American, politeness requires talk between strangers forced to share a booth in a cafeteria, if only a fleeting “Do you mind if I sit down?” or a conventional “Is anyone sitting here?” even if it’s obvious no one is. The omission of such-talk seemed to her like dreadful rudeness. The American couldn’t see that another system of politeness was at work. (She could see nothing but red). By not acknowledging her presence, the British couple freed of involvement; they were being polite by not imposing” (Tannen, 1986).

Snapshot 3. “Thirty six years ago, the Russian premier, Kruschev, visited the United States on a good will trip and at one public gathering thrust his amid up into the air, clasping his hands above his head. Many Americans were enraged at his behavior. [Problem: what was intended as a symbol of international goodwill was interpreted by some as an imitation of a boxer having just knocked out his opponent]” (Gardner, 1987).

Snapshot 1 tells us that some Americans, Indonesians and Japanese got together to discuss their business joint venture, and they spoke the same language, that is English. The Indonesian team members came late to the meeting with three uninvited partners. The Japanese ones needed consultation with higher authority before making an important decision. Their American partners expected punctuality, directness and an immediate decision. A clash began to surface and the reason was simple. Even though they spoke the same language, they came from different cultures. They had different values, expectations and interpretations of an event. In other words, they did not share the same objectivity in their minds.

Snapshot 2 shows how the concept of ‘politeness’ was interpreted differently even though the American lady and the British couple speak the same language, that is, English. She expected talk and they avoided it. Snapshot 3 demonstrates how a gesture of goodwill was interpreted as rude behavior. The three snapshots covering a span of approximately six decades point to the importance of intercultural issues in English language learning. Indonesian ELT practitioners, supposedly knowledgeable of these aspects, should help their students understand them. The students need to understand that they do not only deal with the English language but also the culture that goes along with it. They need to be aware of the fact that linguistic codes they are learning also carry cultural messages. Unfortunately, language learners are often unaware of the cultural norms of the language they are learning (Nussenbaum, 1983). It is the responsibility of their teachers to explain such norms. In other words, the students also need to understand cultural information carried in the English language.

Communicative Language Teaching and Intercultural Issues

To our knowledge, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a teaching methodology which attempts to help learners of English to achieve communicative competence. “The development of communicative competence has to be related to their needs; they need to be prepared to use English for communication. In addition, they are provided with the information, practice and experience to meet their communication needs” (Canale, 1986; Sheila, 1988). In the Indonesian context, hopefully, our learners of English can achieve communicative competence, too. Thus, they are able to use English for communication. However, CLT “does not explicitly mention cultural objectives to enable them to be aware of cultural differences; they can be found by implication” (Murphy, 1988). We believe that once Indonesian learners of English become fluent speakers of English, called English users, they need to be purposefully equipped with cultural information of English speaking people. The need for cultural content arises when they regularly interact with native speakers and other non-speakers of English. They should be aware of cultural iceberg influencing themselves and others when communicating in English. In other words, these Indonesian learners of English, especially the fluent and advanced ones, need to learn cultural rules of English-speaking people. The more fluent and advanced they become, the more receptive they are to interesting content and a richer cultural input. “Knowledge of the target culture remains an important part of language learning, especially at higher levels” (Prodmorou, 1992). Saville (1996) argues for the importance of learning the cultural rules when learning a foreign language and this is also addressed by Byram (1980 in Safnil 1996) saying that in engaging in language, speakers are enacting socio-cultural phenomena. It is a fact that the world is becoming smaller like a global ‘village and English is gaining more eminence as the lingua franca of the world. Due to rapid mobility of the world’s population and increased contact between people caused by modem communications, electronic media, international business activities and international organizations, Indonesian English users not only have to gain communicative competence but also intercultural competence

.

Intercultural Competence

Intercultural competence has something to do with the ability to understand cultural aspects of a society and function appropriately in that society. For example, when we had lunch at a food stall in East Java and were asked what kind of drink we would like to have we had to state clearly that we wanted teh tawar or teh tidak pakai gula which is common in South Sumatra. If we simply had said teh we would have got teh manis which we found strange to go with lunch. Foreign learners of Bahasa Indonesia should be made aware of this (the same word ‘teh’ with different meanings ‘teh tawar’ and ‘teh manis’ due to its regional context). A similar example can be cited here. Indonesian British-university alumni sometimes talk about ‘dissertation’ which is a requirement for a master’s degree program in England. In contrast, Indonesian American-university graduates may be surprised to hear that. To them, a dissertation is a requirement for a Ph. D. degree program. Knowledge about this difference is necessary to develop among Indonesian learners of English because it can cause misunderstanding when they communicate in English (also in Indonesian). We could not perform well because we misunderstood the term teh. We also had different interpretation of the same word because we had a different educational background. The illustration shows how people of different ethnic and educational background misunderstood each other even though they were all Indonesians.

Fantini (2000) defines intercultural competence as ‘the abilities to perform effectively and appropriately with members of another language-culture background on their terms. In the context of TEFL, Indonesian users of English should be able to communicate well with other native and non-native speakers of English. The users attempt to create mutual understanding through the use of English because they understand cultural aspects contained in the language.

Saville-Troike (1982) defines intercultural competence as “the ability to interpret cultural meaning through linguistic behavior.” When offered ‘What would you like to drink?’ Indonesian learners of English should make a clear choice which is not customary for them. In this situation, they are asked to decide what kind of drink they prefer. They cannot simply to say “It’s up to you’ or ‘Anything you have is OK.” In Indonesian culture, if it really exists, they are given no choice. Usually, a hostess does not ask; she simply serves ‘teh manis’ or ‘kopi manis’ which we sometimes do not want to drink.

An Indonesian friend of mine visiting England was asked by his British counterpart to have dinner together. The British was hungry and so was the Indonesian. The British asked ‘Would you like to have dinner?’. The Indonesian answered ‘No,’ because he expected that the offer would be repeated two or three times before he accepted it. He regretted that he did not get a free dinner and had to buy one before he went to bed.

In this globalization era, there is a need to equip Indonesian learners of English with intercultural knowledge and skills especially when they regularly have direct contact with English speaking people. The goal of inclusion of cultural aspects of English must be specified. Specific needs of the Indonesian learners of English must be identified because the culture of English speakers is diverse and it is difficult to generalize about its aspects.

Byram (2000) discusses the five elements of intercultural competence:

a.attitudes: curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about other cultures and belief about one’s own

b.knowledge: of social groups and their products and practices in one’s own and in one’s interlocutor’s country, and of the general processes of societal and individual interaction.

c.skills of interpreting and relating: ability to interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents from one’s own

d.skills of discovery and interaction: ability to acquire new knowledge or a culture and cultural practices and the ability to operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under the constraints of real-time communication and interaction

e. critical cultural awareness/political education: ability to evaluate critically and on the basic of explicit criteria perspectives, practices and products in one’s own and other cultures and countries.

Lafayette and Schultzs (in Morrain, 1983) state that there are probably three culturally oriented goals which can be tested:

a. knowledge. The ability to recognize cultural information or pattern;

b. understanding. The ability to explain cultural information or pattern. The students need to understand a cultural pattern in terms of its meaning, origin, interrelationship with the larger cultural context; and

c. behavior. The ability to use cultural information or pattern. The objective refers to behavior skills such as the ability to act meaningfully, unobtrusively and unoffensively in real or simulated cultural situations.

In this globalization era, there is a need to enable Indonesian learners of English to understand and use their intercultural knowledge and skills especially when they regularly have direct contact with English speaking people. The goal of inclusion of cultural aspects of English must be specified. Specific needs of the Indonesian learners of English must be identified because the culture of English speakers is diverse and it is difficult to generalize about its aspects. Indonesian teachers of English should make their learners to be ‘interculturally competent … capture and understand, in interaction with people from foreign cultures, their specific concepts in perception, thinking, feeling and acting (Wikepedia, accessed on June 12, 2008).

Potential Intercultural Encounters

Worldview, language and non-verbal communication (particularly the use of space and/ or time) are often identified as important elements of intercultural communication (Mulvany, 2008). Young (1997), an Australian teacher of Indonesian spending some years in Indonesia gives some ideas on Australian culture and how to survive it. She lists and explains some Australian cultural aspects for Indonesian learners of English to be aware of when studying in Australia. The list includes greetings (shaking hands, verbal greetings), topics of conversation (marital status, family, origin, age, religion, jobs), time, queuing, noise, and business transactions.

Our observations and professional experience show that there are some cultural aspects of English speaking people for Indonesian learners of English to learn if they want to increase their intercultural competence, particularly when they regularly need to communicative with the native speakers. The aspects are time, directness, honesty, saying no which really means no, discipline, work and play, compliments, apology, decision-making process, informality, frankness, initiatives, negotiations, citizenship, status, age, telephone talk, media of communication, silence and noise, smoking, politeness, equality/egalitarianism, red-tapes/ bureaucracy, jokes/humor, taboos, rhetoric, euphemisms, superstition, and stereotyping.

Strategies to Develop Intercultural Competence

Various techniques used in English language teaching methodology can be utilized to teach cultural content: lectures, readings, personal observations, interviews, films and videotapes, role-plays, discussions, simulation games, values clarifications exercises.

Lectures can be an efficient means of conveying cultural information or offering new perspectives on what Indonesian learners of English already know. If experts in a particular field, especially anthropology, sociology, cross-cultural communication or other related social sciences, are available, they can be invited to give guest lectures to explain deep culture of English. Textbooks on cross-cultural communication can help Indonesian learners of English to increase awareness of English culture, for example, Beyond Language Intercultural Communication for English as a Second Language and Journeys to Cultural Understanding, Intercultural Communication, and Cultures in Conversation. By reading these materials they have access to detailed treatment of issues related to specific intercultural aspects that they need to understand.

Indonesian learners of English can be asked to observe certain events where English speakers and non- native speakers regularly interact. They may take notes on differences and similarities of the ways both groups communicate and report to the class.

Films and video tapes can provide vivid illustration of cultural patterns in action. They may pick up certain rules from these media. In addition, they can be asked to find out what it means to act like members of English culture. It does not mean, however, that they must change their identity or personality. At least, they can see how native speakers feel in a certain situation. This will hopefully increase their intercultural awareness.

The learners can also be asked to discuss some cultural information with their classmates or native speakers, for example, why Americans tend to pay for themselves when they have lunch even though they ask you to go to a restaurant together. The discussion will at first yield different interpretations. When the issue is clarified, they will recognize how their own culture has shaped them and why they do it that way. For a certain period of time, they can be asked to live according to the English cultural rules, for example, how as far as they know Americans have dinner, what kinds of meals they eat, how they set the table, etc. This simulation game can show that the habit which is culturally ingrained affects our behavior. Then they will realize why their British, American or Australian friends act the way they do. They will also understand that their communication actions are influenced by their Indonesian culture. Such awareness tells Indonesian learners of English that when two people (Indonesian and Briton or American or Australian) speaking in the same language (English) they still tend to think in their own cultures. They have to negotiate the same cultural meaning in order to achieve mutual understanding.

Conclusion.

There is a need to intentionally equip Indonesian learners of English with intercultural information of English speaking world. When communicating with English speaking people and other non-native speakers of English, Indonesian English users must understand cultural differences they are facing and recognize openly that everyone in the world isn’t just like us. Simultaneously, they can introduce Indonesian culture that may enable “us” and “them” to appreciate the differences, avoid conflicts and increase intercultural understanding and create harmony.